Private Supplementary Tutoring Research Articles

Book Review: Shadow Education in the Middle East

Since the 1990s, private supplementary tutoring has become increasingly prevalent across the globe. Such form of tutoring is often referred to as ‘shadow education’ because it ‘mimics schooling’ (p. 4). As such, ‘as the curriculum changes in the schools, so it changes in the shadow; and as the school systems expand, so do shadow systems’ (p. 4). This has inspired numerous scholars to explore its contributing factors and their implications for education policymaking, social mobility, and equity. Shadow Education in the Middle East: Private supplementary tutoring and its policy implications, co-authored by Mark Bray and Anas Hajar, is the latest addition the study of shadow education as a global phenomenon. It builds on Mark Bray and others’ existing works on mapping the global landscape of shadow education, including post-Soviet states (Silova et al., 2006), the Mediterranean (Bray et al., 2013), East Asia (Zhang and Yamato, 2018), South Asia (Joshi, 2021), and Africa (Bray, 2021).

Marketization of Shadow Education in Switzerland: How “Edupreneurs” Promote Preparation Programmes for a Selective School Transition

Private supplementary tutoring (PST) is a flourishing market for edupreneurs whose services relate closely to mainstream education. While international research elaborates on geographical variations in PST and edupreneurs’ marketing strategies, the PST market in Switzerland has been largely understudied. This paper contributes to fill this research gap by presenting a thematic analysis of the websites of edupreneurs offering preparation programmes for the highly selective central entrance examination (CEE) to the academically focused public school track of Gymnasium in Zurich. Conceptually, we draw on “problematization” and “commodificiation” as key terms elaborated by “geographies of marketization”. With this performative conceptualisation of the education market, we examine the marketing strategies of the edupreneurs offering CEE preparation courses. We offer two contributions to the existing research. First, the analysis elaborates that private CEE preparation courses are advertised as a market solution that compensates for an omission caused by public education. Second, we show how edupreneurs use rational and emotional arguments to convince families of the need of booking CEE preparation courses for their children. In the discussion, we engage with the findings of our local case study and argue that selective educational transitions have much wider relevance for policy and society elsewhere.

Corrigendum to “Delving into the shadow: Mathematics teachers’ perspectives on the impact of private supplementary tutoring in Ireland”

Corrigendum to “Delving into the shadow: Mathematics teachers’ perspectives on the impact of private supplementary tutoring in Ireland”

Evaluating the effectiveness of private supplementary tutoring on grade 12 learners’ mathematics achievement

This study evaluated the effectiveness of private supplementary tutoring on grade 12 learners’ mathematics performance in selected schools within the OR Tambo Inland District, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The research involved 347 participants from four schools and was grounded in Lev Vygotsky’s socio-cultural learning theory. Utilizing quantitative methodology and a causal-comparative research design, data were collected through a questionnaire and the standardized mathematics test. Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were employed in the analysis of data. Findings indicate that learners who attended private supplementary tutoring significantly outperformed those who did not. Additionally, 72.5% of the privately tutored learners sought tutoring to enhance their overall mathematics performance, while 86.1% of the non-tutored cited affordability as the primary barrier. Recommendations include strategies for stakeholders to maximize the benefits of private supplementary tutoring sessions and to develop alternative measures to support learners who are financially constrained from accessing such tutorials.

Shaping shadows: influences of different forms of capital on private supplementary tutoring in Myanmar

Private supplementary tutoring, widely described as shadow education in the academic literature, takes place outside regular school hours. It is widespread across the globe, but with diverse structures. Drawing on insights from Myanmar, this article examines how different forms of capital shape tutoring demand and supply. Employing a mixed-methods design, the study was conducted in Mandalay Region and Chin State. Survey data were collected from 1,366 students and 97 teachers, and interviews were conducted with 110 Grade 11 students, 34 high school teachers, 30 parents, 29 tutoring providers, and two private school owners. The article highlights economic, cultural and social capital, noting distinctive features in Myanmar but also commonalities with other societies. The article contributes to conceptual understanding of the forces that shape private tutoring in different settings.

More is worse: the impact of private supplementary tutoring on middle school students’ academic achievement

ABSTRACT The literature on the effect of private supplementary tutoring has not yet reached a unanimous conclusion. In the context of the marketization of educational resources in China, this paper uses data from the Chinese Education Panel Survey (CEPS) and employs the two-stage least squares method (TSLS) to investigate the causal impact of private supplementary tutoring participation on junior middle school students’ academic achievement. After addressing the endogeneity issue of private supplementary tutoring participation, the results show that private supplementary tutoring significantly reduced the overall standardized scores of junior high school students, as well as their standardized scores in Chinese, mathematics, and English. Heterogeneity analysis shows that students attending lower-ranked schools are more adversely affected by private supplementary tutoring. Further analysis shows that the more academic pressure students face, the greater the negative impact of private supplementary tutoring on their academic achievement. Therefore, for students with heavy homework, blindly participating in private supplementary tutoring could exacerbate the academic achievement gap among students, which is detrimental to the balanced development of education.

:Shadow Education in Africa: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Policy Implications

:<i>Shadow Education in Africa: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Policy Implications</i>

A bibliometric analysis of shadow education in Asia: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications

This study examines shadow education research in Asia using bibliometric indicators and Scopus data. It uncovers this field’s leading scholars, scientific origins, and progression through various analyses, including co-citation, bibliographic coupling, co-authorship, and co-occurrence. H-classics publications are also reviewed to highlight impactful contributions. Mark Bray was identified as a key figure, and China, Hong Kong, and South Korea emerged as leading contributors, forming collaborative networks. Network analysis reveals thematic clusters aligning with diverse dimensions of shadow education, including economic, sociological, political, linguistic, and psychological aspects. The main themes in the corpus include the tangible benefits of private supplementary tutoring (PT) in achieving high scores during critical educational transitions, the impact of PT on the dynamics of mainstream schooling as demonstrated by the behaviour of some tutees and teachers, and the role of PT in exacerbating educational and social inequalities in Asia. Concerns about corruption in tutoring practices are also noted. This study depicts the multifaceted nature of shadow education, emphasising the importance of considering the soft benefits of PT and enhancing the quality of teaching in mainstream schooling, as well as implementing effective PT regulatory measures.

Being participatory: employing geographic lenses to understand young people’s experiences of private supplementary tutoring in Uzbekistan

ABSTRACT This mixed-methods study explores the experiences and perceptions of primary school students of fee-charging private supplementary tutoring (PST) in Uzbekistan. The data were collected from five mainstream schools, using a close-ended questionnaire and two participatory methods – group interviews and drawings. The study found that 574 out of 1024 students (56%) received PST, mainly to increase their knowledge in core subjects, boost their self-confidence, and accomplish their aspirations of studying/working abroad. Achieving high scores in examinations was a secondary goal for many participants because they did not have a high-stakes examination at this academic level. 286 out of 574 students (50%) reported that their private tutors were their own class teachers, which raises concerns about favouritism and coercion. The participants acted agentively by highlighting the advantages of PST. The study stresses the importance of adopting effective policies to regulate PST and using participatory research methods to capture children’s PST experiences.

A neglected health burden of shadow education?—Effects of private supplementary tutoring on middle school students’ vision in China

Virtually all educational activities require visual inputs, but little is known about how extra out-of-school learning activities may impact children’s vision. Based on panel data from the China Education Panel Survey, a large-scale, nationally representative survey on middle school students in China, this study applies a value-added model (with lagged outcome measures as explanatory variables) to estimate the impacts of private supplementary tutoring (PST, also known as “shadow education”) participation on Chinese middle school students’ visual outcomes. The results suggest that PST participation exerts a statistically significant and adverse effect on Grade-8 students’ vision. One year of PST participation raises the prevalence of myopia among 8th graders by 4.6 ∼ 5.4 percentage points, leading to a more negative (i.e., more myopic) refractive error of −0.12 ∼ -0.18 diopters in their (better-seeing) eyes. Further analysis reveals that these effects work by increasing not only students’ time spent on out-of-school learning activities but also their time spent on homework assigned by regular teachers, thereby creating a spillover effect.

Exploring private supplementary tutoring in Finnish general upper secondary education

ABSTRACT We examine private supplementary tutoring within the context of Finnish general upper secondary education. Specifically, we focus on profit-driven private preparatory course providers who cater to individual students and their families, aiming to improve applicants’ prospects of gaining access to higher education. We examine this during a time when a recent education policy reform has renewed seeking admission to higher education in Finland, consequently impacting the private supplementary tutoring market associated with it. We draw on Bourdieu’s concepts of field, capital, and habitus as a starting point for discussing the complex dynamics between public and private actors in the field of Finnish general upper secondary education and the role of economic capital. The ethnographic data analyzed for this paper consist of field notes and interviews (n = 58) from three general upper secondary schools, produced in 2019-2020. The study aims to investigate the negotiations between the public and private spheres of education within the everyday practices of Finnish public upper secondary education during an educational policy reform. We conclude that the fields of public and private education are not separate but rather intertwined, and they can become blurred in the everyday life of schools through both temporal and spatial overlaps.

Missing data: what we know and what we need to know about private supplementary tutoring

Recent decades have brought considerable expansion of private supplementary tutoring. This phenomenon is widely called shadow education because much of it mimics schooling. Initially it gained prominence in East Asia, but is now visible throughout the world, with far-reaching implications for economies, societies, and education systems. It promotes learning and provides employment for tutors; but it also demands substantial household expenditures, maintains and exacerbates social inequalities, and can have a backwash on schooling. Despite these considerations, reliable and comprehensive data are scarce. This article commences with a picture that can be drawn from the available data, and then highlights data gaps. It stresses the need for more and better data to aid decision-making not only by governments but also by schools, families and other stakeholders.

Still in need of confronting: Shadow education and its implications in the sustainable development goals

Recent decades have brought global expansion of private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, with enrolment rates in some countries and at some grades now exceeding 80%. Shadow education maintains and exacerbates social inequalities despite government efforts through the Education for All (EFA) agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to reduce inequalities. Patterns vary, but in most countries shadow education receives inadequate policy attention in part because governments feel that it is beyond their remit and/or that they lack regulatory capacity. The paper argues for improved data collection for clarity on the extent, nature and implications of shadow education, and for stronger attention to regulations. One component of these regulations should focus on teachers, to specify the circumstances in which teachers may (not) provide tutoring. Another component should focus on commercial providers of shadow education, regulating them not only in the ways that other businesses are regulated but also with specific focus on educational domains.

Book review: Shadow Education in the Middle East: Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Policy Implications

Book review: Shadow Education in the Middle East: Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Policy Implications

Shadow Education in the Middle East Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Policy Implications by Mark Bray &amp; Anas Hajar

Shadow Education in the Middle East Private Supplementary Tutoring and its Policy Implications by Mark Bray &amp; Anas Hajar

Measuring private tutoring: methodological lessons and insights from Francophone Africa

ABSTRACT This paper examines and builds on an earlier contribution to this journal focusing on private supplementary tutoring – widely known as shadow education – in Francophone West and Central Africa. Drawing on wider literature about research methods in this domain, it examines the basis for the numerical estimates presented in the original article and supplements those statistics with data from a subsequent survey. The paper stresses the significance of the topic, and highlights methodological lessons not only for these African settings but also more widely. In this way it contributes to further research agendas relating not only to private tutoring but also to methods in cross-national surveys of educational achievement.

:Shadow Education in Myanmar: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Policy Implications

:<i>Shadow Education in Myanmar: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Policy Implications</i>

Shadow Education in the Middle East: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Policy Implications By Mark Bray and Anas Hajar. Taylor &amp; Francis. £39.19. August 2022. ISBN: 9781032329802

This is a Book Review and does not have an abstract. Please download the PDF or view the article in HTML.

Private supplementary tutoring and educational inequality in secondary education in Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT This mixed-methods study is the first to explore the association between fee-charging private supplementary tutoring (PT) participation and access to higher education in Kazakhstan from the perspectives of Grade 11 students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Guided by the work of Entrich in 2018, a four-dimensional model of educational inequality in PT, this study found that the scale of PT had expanded during the pandemic, with 75.06% (623 out of 830) of participants engaged in PT, mainly to excel in the university entrance examinations and gain a state grant at their preferred university in Kazakhstan. Also, 73.8% of the students spent 40,000 tenge (US$88) or less on PT per month. Although participants’ families prioritized boys for providing PT services, most participants neither agreed nor disagreed that PT was a financial pressure on their families, probably because the majority attended group tutoring delivered at tutorial centres, and this mode of tutoring reduced the unit cost and gave them the attention they needed from their tutors. The 30 interviewees had positive attitudes towards PT, but some mentioned a few of its disadvantages, including the spread of less qualified, costly tutors due to the unregulated PT market in Kazakhstan. This study suggests pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research.

Differential effects of private tutoring on facets of students' mathematics achievement: A longitudinal study

Private supplementary tutoring (PT) is practiced worldwide to improve students' academic performance and is highly prevalent in East Asia. However, studies have not clearly defined the effectiveness of PT. This study examined student-report questionnaires and school reports of mathematics achievements from approximately 2000 secondary school students to track retrospective longitudinal variations of PT over a year and analysed the differential effectiveness of regular mathematics PT participation on mathematics achievement at four hierarchical cognitive levels. Based on a sub-sample of students who regularly took PT in three consecutive periods (n = 773) as well as students who did not take PT (N = 758), the results indicated that the effect size of PT effectiveness decreased from low to high cognitive levels (from positive to negative). These results raise questions concerning the role of PT. This study provides an evidence-based assessment concerning the effectiveness of PT and highlights the implications for educational practice and future research.