Private Self-Consciousness Scale Research Articles

Structure, network analysis, psychometric properties and clinical utility of the self-absorption scale in China

BackgroundSelf-absorption refers an excessive, persistent, and rigid preoccupation with information regarding the self. This study aims to introduce the Self-Absorption Scale (SAS) into China with an assessment of its latent variable structure, network structure, psychometric properties, and clinical utility in a nonclinical Chinese sample.Methods209 participants completed the translated SAS as well as the Short General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), rumination subscale of the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ), the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), the Private Self-Consciousness Scale (PrSCS), the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R) and the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-II). In addition, 30 respondents completed the Chinese version of the SAS and retested it 2 weeks later.ResultsThe Chinese version of the SAS (CH-SAS) had a desirable two-correlated-factor structure with the reverse scored item removed, which was invariant across different genders. The core items in the network structure of the CH-SAS were related to excessive self-immersion, uncontrollability and anxiety aspects of self-absorption. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the CH-SAS was 0.903 while the McDonald’s omega coefficient was 0.916 and the test-retest reliability was 0.908. The CH-SAS and its two subscales had moderate positive correlations with the rumination subscale of the RRQ (ranging from 0.474 to 0.616; p < .001) and the GHQ-12 (ranging from 0.479 to 0.538; p < .001), and moderate negative correlations with the MAAS (ranging from − 0.413 to − 0.360; p < .001). The PrSCS has almost no correlation with the CH-SAS and PrSAS (p > .05), and its correlation with the PubSAS was significant at the 0.05 level, with a remarkably low correlation coefficient (r = .157). The hierarchical regression analysis suggested that the CH-SAS can significantly predict the severity of OCD beyond factors such as depression, anxiety, rumination, dissociation, and mindful attention awareness.ConclusionsThe CH-SAS demonstrates excellent reliability, including internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Additionally, it exhibits favorable structural validity, as well as strong evidence of convergent and divergent validity. Furthermore, the self-absorption measured using the CH-SAS contributed significantly to the prediction of OCD beyond other relevant psychological factors, suggesting its clinical utility.

Effects of emotion-induced self-focused attention on item and source memory

Affective states are closely linked to attention to internal aspects of the self (i.e., self-focused attention). We investigated how self-focused attention induced by emotional experiences affects memory for subsequently presented information. Prior to incidental encoding of affectively neutral target words, participants were induced to feel shame or anger through autobiographical recall (vs. no emotion-induction control condition). Memory for words (item memory) and their associated contextual features (source memory) were subsequently assessed. Self-focused attention, measured by the private self-consciousness scale, was highest in the shame condition, followed by the anger and then control conditions. Item memory was significantly impaired in the shame condition compared to both the anger and control conditions, and self-focused attention negatively mediated the effect of emotion condition on memory performance. Source memory did not significantly differ across the emotion conditions, and we discuss possible factors contributing to this null finding. Our findings suggest that emotion-induced self-focused attention may reduce attentional resources available for encoding task-relevant external information.

Self-Consciousness or Misattribution Effect in the Induced Hypocrisy Paradigm? Mirror, Mirror on the Wall….

In a forced compliance situation, Scheier and Carver have shown that making high private self-consciousness salient through exposure to a mirror inhibits the arousal of dissonance and the subsequent attitude change. Based on these results, the aim of our study is to examine an alternate theoretical interpretation of the absence of attitude change. From our point of view, the mirror could have the status of a misattribution cue, thus maintaining the arousal. To test this hypothesis within the induced hypocrisy paradigm, participants first completed the private self-consciousness scale. Then they took part in one of the following conditions: (1) no mirror/no hypocrisy, (2) no mirror/hypocrisy, and (3) mirror/hypocrisy. Behavioral change and psychological discomfort were measured. Results indicated that participants in the mirror/hypocrisy condition were the most inclined to change and reported the greatest psychological discomfort. These results revealed that participants experienced dissonance when exposed to the mirror and support the hypothesis of misattribution.

Relationship Between Self-Focused Attention and Dissociation in Patients With and Without Auditory Hallucinations

The purpose of this work was to study the relationship between self-focused attention and dissociative experiences in 4 groups of subjects: patients with a psychotic disorder who suffer from auditory hallucinations, patients with psychoses who have recovered from their hallucinations, patients with psychoses who have never had them, and a fourth nonclinical group. The private self-consciousness scale, revised version by Scheier and Carver, J Appl Soc Psychol. 1985;15:687-699, was used to measure self-focused attention, and the dissociative experience scale (DES-II, Bernstein and Putnam, J Nerv Ment Dis. 1986;174:727-735) was used for dissociation. The results showed that the attention of subjects with hallucinations was more self-focused than the nonclinical group, but did not differentiate significantly from groups of patients without hallucinations. On the other hand, patients with hallucinations and those recovered from them had a higher percentage of dissociative experiences than the rest of the groups in the total DES-II score and in its 3 factors, dissociative amnesia, depersonalization, and absorption. We also found a positive correlation between self-focusing and dissociative experiences in subjects with hallucinations. The depersonalization factor on the DES-II was the only factor predicting auditory hallucinations. The conclusions discuss the relevance of dissociative factors and self-focused attention to understanding the etiology of auditory hallucinations and their contributions to current cognitive models of hallucinations.

Excessive Self-Focused Attention and Defensiveness among Psychiatric Patients: A Vicious Cycle?

The contribution of defensive coping to the phenomenon of excessive self-focused attention was studied in 20 depressed or anxious psychiatric outpatients comprising the negative affect group, 20 patients with psychotic disorders, and a control group of 21 patients of an orthopaedic clinic. Self-focused attention was assessed using the Self-reflectiveness and Internal State Awareness subfactors of the Private Self-consciousness Scale. In accordance with other research on self-focused attention, the negative affect group obtained higher scores on the Self-reflectiveness scale than the control group (t39=2.40, p<.03). To examine the relationship between self-focus and defensiveness, Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson's approach was employed, using median splits of short forms of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and the Marlowe-Crowne scale to differentiate among four groups of subjects. The highest self-reflectiveness was found for those participants who were high in both defensiveness and anxiety. This group scored higher than the nondefensive high anxious group (t30= -2.31, p<.03). The heightened self-focused attention might result from automatically instigated states of self-focused attention and paradoxical effects of defensive efforts to avoid self-focus.

TESTING COMPETING FACTOR MODELS UNDERLYING THE PRIVATE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS SCALE WITH HONG KONG CHINESE ADOLESCENTS

This study evaluated competing factor models underlying the Private Self-Consciousness scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, &amp; Buss, 1975) with a large sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Reliability analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis did not lend empirical support to the three split-factor models proposed in previous research (Anderson, Bohon, &amp; Berrigan, 1996; Burnkrant &amp; Page, 1984; Martin &amp; Debus, 1999). It was recommended that the original unitary model proposed by Fenigstein et al. should be retained in interpreting scores made on this scale, at least for Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Possible influences of age and culture on the factor structure of the scale were also discussed.

Factor Structure of the Private Self-Consciousness Scale: Role of Item Wording

In 3 studies, I have tested the structure of different phrasing versions of the Private Self-Consciousness Scale (PrSC; Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) using exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic methods and examined their predictive validity. For the original version of the PrSC, a 2-factorial model similar to Nystedt and Ljungberg's (2002) solution was found to best fit the data. When all scale items included extreme rate of occurrence words such as always, a single-factor solution emerged. Finally, when all words reflecting rate of occurrence were removed, again a 2-factor structure emerged, although different in item composition from that of the original version. In addition, different patterns of association emerged between the PrSC factors and depression and self-esteem for the extreme and neutral versions. I discuss the importance of reconceptualizing self-consciousness and the need for a new, theoretically based scale for self-consciousness.

Can positive affect induce self-focused attention? Methodological and measurement issues

Some studies find that positive affect can induce self-focused attention, but other studies find no effect. We suggest that the contrary findings result from how self-awareness was measured. One group of participants listened to happy or neutral music; another group imagined and described a happy or neutral event. Two measures of self-focus were then taken. The experiment replicated past findings: Positive affect increased self-focus on a pronoun selection task, but had no effect on a modified private self-consciousness scale. The results were slightly stronger when affect was induced using music. Implications for future research are discussed.

Private Self-Consciousness Subscales: Correlates with Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Self-Discrepancy

Two studies investigated the relationships between the two dimensions of Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss' Private Self-Consciousness Scale [1], namely, self-reflectiveness and internal-state awareness, and neuroticism, extraversion, and self-discrepancy. Study 1 focused on neuroticism and extraversion and Study 2 focused on discrepancies between different domains of the self. Self-reflectiveness was related positively with neuroticism and negatively with extraversion, whereas internal-state awareness showed the opposite pattern of relationships: It was related negatively with neuroticism and positively with extraversion. In addition, only self-reflectiveness, and not internal-state awareness, was associated with greater self-discrepancy. The importance of reconceptualizing self-consciousness and the need for a new scale for self-consciousness are discussed.

Explaining personality or explaining variance? A comment on Creed and Funder (1998)

Based on factor analyses of the private self-consciousness scale, Creed and Funder (1998) posit ‘two faces of private self-consciousness’: self-reflectiveness, which relates to negative outcomes, and internal state awareness, which relates to positive outcomes. The significance of this distinction is questioned. I contend (i) that the existence of two subfactors is a fatal deficiency in the private self-consciousness scale, not a benefit; (ii) that factor analysis can never discover aspects of personality; (iii) that only an underlying theoretical network, not unique variance, makes a scale useful; and (iv) that the SR and ISA distinction exemplifies the undesirable Aristotelian approach (Lewin, 1931) to personality. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Explaining personality or explaining variance? A comment on Creed and Funder (1998)

Based on factor analyses of the private self-consciousness scale, Creed and Funder (1998) posit ‘two faces of private self-consciousness’: self-reflectiveness, which relates to negative outcomes, and internal state awareness, which relates to positive outcomes. The significance of this distinction is questioned. I contend (i) that the existence of two subfactors is a fatal deficiency in the private self-consciousness scale, not a benefit; (ii) that factor analysis can never discover aspects of personality; (iii) that only an underlying theoretical network, not unique variance, makes a scale useful; and (iv) that the SR and ISA distinction exemplifies the undesirable Aristotelian approach (Lewin, 1931) to personality. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Affect and Self-Focused Attention Revisited: The Role of Affect Orientation

Research examining the influence of affect on self-focused attention has concentrated exclusively on the valence dimension (i.e., negative-positive) of affect. The authors propose that the dimension of affect orientation (i.e., reflective-social) illuminates consider ably this relation. A reflective orientation refers to atendency for inaction, whereas a social orientation refers to a tendency for action. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that two opposite-valenced but reflective affective states (i.e., sadness and contentment) heighten self-focused attention, whereas two opposite-valenced but social affective states (i.e., thrill and anger) reduce self-focused attention. Affect was induced via an imagination task (Experiment 1) or an imagination task combined with musical selections (Experiment 2). Self-focused attention was assessed through the state version of the Private Self-Consciousness (PSC) scale (Experiment 1) or the state version of the PSC plus a behavioral intention measure (Experiment 2). The results confirmed the hypothesis.

The preoccupation scale: its development and relationship with depression scales.

Self-focus has been thought to be an important factor in the development and maintenance of depression. The disposition to focus attention inward has been measured by the Private Self-Consciousness Scale (PSCS), which does not reflect the duration of self-focusing. Study 1 aimed to develop a Self-Preoccupation Scale (SPS) that would reflect both the degree and duration of self-focusing. In addition, a new concept, external-preoccupation-the maintenance of external-focus on a specific object-was proposed as a risk factor of depression. An External-Preoccupation Scale (EPS) was developed to measure this. Both the SPS and EPS showed excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Study 2 aimed to examine the relationship between the SPS, EPS, and PSCS and depression. The EPS was not significantly correlated with depression scales. The moderate correlations of the SPS with the depression scales were significantly higher than the correlations of the PSCS with the depression scales.

Factor Structure of the Private Self-Consciousness Scale

Several issues concerning the factors of the Private Self-Consciousness Scale (PRSC) of Fenigstein et al. (1975) are examined, including possible artifactuality and appropriate conceptualization. Findings confirm the existence of the 2 factors reported in previous research (Burnkrant & Page, 1984; Lennox, Welch, Wolfe, Zimmerman, & Dixon, 1987; Mittal & Balasubramanian, 1987; Piliavin & Charng, 1988) and suggest that these factors are substantive, not artifactual, in nature. One factor was found to be associated with mild levels of psychopathology, whereas the other was not. In addition to providing a clearer conception of the nature of these factors, our results may help to resolve apparently contradictory findings in the PRSC literature. Implications for research on self-focused attention are also discussed.

RECONCEPTUALIZING THE PRIVATE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS SUBSCALE

Three studies, part of a larger investigation of the effects of self-help groups, examined the structure of the private self-consciousness scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, &amp; Buss, 1975). Two of these studies sampled children of alcoholics enrolled in an urban university and one sampled participants in a substance abuse treatment program. Factor analyses and correlational patterns across the three studies revealed that the private self-consciousness measure is composed of two orthogonal subscales, suggesting that the continued use of the entire 10-item private self-consciousness measure is inappropriate.

Correlates of psychological mindedness

Levels of psychological mindedness, mental well-being, and self-consciousness of 89 students of a small liberal arts college were examined. Psychological mindedness, the awareness of one's and others' thoughts, feelings, and motives, is a recently studied phenomenon. The main hypothesis was that there is a positive linear correlation between psychological mindedness, as measured by the Psychological Mindedness Scale (Conte, Plutchik, Jung & Picard, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31, 426–431, 1990), and mental well-being, as measured by the Happy Scale (Ryff, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081, 1989). This hypothesis was supported ( P < 0.01). As expected, there was also a positive linear correlation between self-consciousness, as measured by the Private Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier & Buss, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527, 1975), and psychological mindedness ( P < 0.01). A multiple regression indicated that as psychological mindedness increases, the level of mental well-being increases, and the level of self-consciousness decreases. In addition, psychology students were found to be significantly more psychologically minded than other social science students ( P = 0.05) and more self-conscious than humanities students and science students ( P < 0.01). Though psychological mindedness varied with major, it was found to transcend both class year and gender.

Private and public self-consciousness subscales of the Fenigstein, Scheier and Buss self-consciousness scale: A Turkish translation

The aim of the study was to analyze the psychometric properties of public and private subscales of the self-consciousness scale (Fenigstein, Scheier & Buss, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527, 1975) on a sample of Turkish University students. Two pilot studies were carried out to explore the efficacy of the translated version. Then, in the main study, the final reliability and construct validity analysis were carried out on a sample of 253 students from various departments of Middle East Technical University. Results confirmed both the two factor structure of the private self-consciousness scale which had been reported by Bunkrant and Page ( Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 629–637, 1984), and Piliavin and Chamg ( Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 587–595, 1988) and the psychometric properties of the public self-consciousness scale which had been reported in the original study (Fenigstein et al., 1975). The Turkish version of each subscale is seemingly applicable on Turkish populations.

Department of Education, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia 2308.

We examined the loci of social anxiety in a sample of 385 Australian adult subjects (186 men and 199 women, mean age 30.63 years). Responses to the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (Watson & Friend, 1969), and the Public and Private Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) were intercorrelated. The results suggested that for some socially anxious people who are privately shy, the locus of their anxiety is cognitive, whereas for others who are more concerned with performance, the locus is behavioral.

The Self-Concept of Rajneeshpuram Commune Members

This study reports on a long-term research project of the former, and controversial, Rajneeshpuram commune. This project (the only systematic empirical study of the group ever undertaken) began in 1982 and continued until the commune's demise in late 1985. The relationship between the individual member's psychological processes and the commune's belief system was examined through the assessment of member's self-concept. The Public, Private, and Social Anxiety sub-scales of the Self-Consciousness Scale ana the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were administered to 230 commune members, who scored significantly higher than the general population in self-esteem. Subjects also scored high on the Private Self-Consciousness Scale, but low on the Social Anxiety and Public Self-Consciousness Scales. The score in Private Self-Consciousness accords with the movement's belief that self-exploration is a legitimate and respectable avocation, but it contradicts the stereotypical notion that members of new religions or cults are easily persuaded.

Dimensions of private self-consciousness and attributional style

The present study demonstrated that Private Self-Consciousness (PrSC) apparently predicts less internal attributional bias because of an embedded internal State of Awareness (ISA) dimension built into the PrSC scale. Previous findings of attributional bias being more strongly associated with this trait may have been caused by using samples that were low in ISA but high in a distinctly different Self Reflectiveness dimension.