Private Health Clubs Research Articles

The Fitness Revolution. Historical Transformations in the Global Gym and Fitness Culture

Today, fitness gyms and private health clubs are a huge global business. Fitness has turned into a folk movement, but not one comparable to the old 20th-century movements, often connected to national sentiments, but instead a highly individualized preoccupation. In this article the historical development of modern gym and fitness culture is described and an analytically developed approach to the understanding of the emergence of this multi-billion-dollar phenomenon is developed. The analysis suggest that the techniques, tools, and physical exercises used today in gyms all over the world are the results of a physical culture developed and refined during the 20th century. The body ideals, exercises, techniques, and the pedagogy of fit ness have become an increasingly international enterprise. A tentative analysis of the globalization of gym and fitness culture is developed and presented. Three important and decisive phases in the globalization of gym and fitness culture are identified and analyzed.

Development, Validity And Reliability of Physical Education Instructor’s Personality Description Scale

This current study describes the development, reliability and validation of a scale concerning the assessment of Physical Education Instructor’s Personality traits. According to the literature review, the Five Factor Model theory (Costa & McCrae, 1985; 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1987) is constituted by a widely accepted classification of human characteristics and an integrated description of human personality. For this reason, the questionnaire was structured based on the factors of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability and lastly on the Openness to new experiences. The questionnaire was distributed to the owners of private health clubs and to the Managers of sports organization municipals who evaluated 481 Physical Education Instructors. During the exploratory factor analysis (n1=161) the criterion of Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (.946) supported the total sufficiency and suitability of the sample for factor analysis, while the examination of Bartlett’s test of Sphericity (2642.791, df 171, p<.00001) led to the rejection of the null hypothesis that variables are independent. The Principal Components Analysis supported the existence of five (5) factors that interpret the 79.539% of overall variance. During the confirmatory factor analysis (n2=320), was checked the internal consistency with the Cronbach a index which gave: a=.87 for the extraversion, a=.90 for the agreeableness, a=.91 for the conscientiousness, a=.82 for the emotional stability/neuroticism and a=.92 for the openness to experience. The adaptation survey indicators [χ2 = 535.782, p<.001, Satorra-Bentler χ2 = 433.245, p<.001, df142, χ2 / df ratio = 3.051, NNFI = .902, CFI = .919, RCFI = .903, IFI = .920, SRMR = .052, RMSEA = .093 (90% CI of RMSEA =.085-.101)] supported the existence of five correlated factors and exceeded the questionnaire’s adaptability limits. Therefore, this specific questionnaire is a sufficient psychometric tool that can be used in the management of human resources in gyms and sports organizations

Portuguese Physical Education Instructors’ Exposure to Noise and Perception of Associated Risk

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to quantify noise exposure of professional physical education instructors in Portugal, understand how they perceive risk and the effects associated with this exposure as well as examine the existence of health complaints potentially related to the exposure to noise. Quantification of sound level exposure comprised 200 measurements of different sport activities in state schools and private health clubs. Characterization of risk perception as well as symptomatology was performed by a three-part survey that provided to a sample of 48 physical education professionals and a comparison group of 52 non-professionals. Results showed the existence of high noise levels that may endanger physical education teachers’ health. These levels are significantly higher in health clubs. Health complaints were significantly higher in the group of professionals, especially concerning hearing difficulties, muffled hearing, intolerance to loud sounds, constant headaches, and irritability. The majority of the physical education instructors are exposed to high levels of sound pressure on a daily basis, which depending on their working hours may compromise their health. This study also reveals the importance of training as well as organizational and structural measures to reduce exposure to harmful noise levels during the performance of sports activities.

Emotions as Antecedents of Participant Sport Consumption Decisions: A Model Integrating Emotive, Self-Based, and Utilitarian Evaluations

Although emotion has occasionally been examined as a dependent variable or outcome of physical activity involvement, it rarely has been studied as an antecedent. This study examines the role of emotion in decision-making processes for participant sport consumption. A structural model is proposed to integrate emotions with self-image congruency and attitudes as antecedents of the decision to initiate physical activity in the consumption context. Context effects were investigated by two scenarios: (1) joining a private health club and (2) skiing in an indoor ski resort. A total of 199 persons responded, and structural equation models were examined. The results indicate that emotion mediates the influence of attitudes and self-image congruency on the decision to join the club and resort. The pattern of the relationships among utilitarian, self-based, and emotive evaluations depends on the sport consumption context. Discussion of theoretical and practical issues is presented and directions for future research are suggested.

(Net)Working out: social capital in a private health club

In Bowling Alone Robert Putnam considers the possibility that the growth of private health clubs and the rising rates of membership to such clubs might represent a counter-trend to his thesis on the decline in social capital. In this paper I explore this idea using ethnographic data and social network analysis. I show both that and how networks form in health clubs and I discuss the ways in which these networks constitute social capital for their members. In addition, however, I explore the 'dark side' of this form of social capital. I argue that high integration amongst some members of a fitness class can generate a power differential between those members and other, less integrated members who experience this negatively. Furthermore, with an eye on Burt's (2005) important thesis on brokerage and closure, I argue that brokerage between relatively closed clusters of agents can lead to inter-group rivalry and conflict, which, in turn, is experienced negatively by those involved.

Do poorer people have poorer access to local resources and facilities? The distribution of local resources by area deprivation in Glasgow, Scotland

It has commonly been suggested that in modern cities individual or household deprivation (for example, low income or education) is amplified by area level deprivation (for example, lack of jobs or good schools), in ways which damage the health of the poorest and increase health inequalities. The aim of this study was to determine the location of a range of resources and exposures by deprivation in a UK city. We examined the location of 42 resources in Glasgow City, Scotland, in 2005–2006, by quintile of small area deprivation. Measures included number per 1000 population, network distance to nearest resource, and percentage of data zones containing at least one of each type of resource. Twelve resources had higher density in, and/or were closer to or more common in, more deprived neighbourhoods: public nurseries, public primary schools, police stations, pharmacies, credit unions, post offices, bus stops, bingo halls, public swimming pools, public sports centres, outdoor play areas, and vacant and derelict land/buildings. Sixteen had higher density in, and/or were closer to, or more common in, more affluent neighbourhoods: public secondary schools, private schools, banks, building societies, museums/art galleries, railway stations, subway stations, tennis courts, bowling greens, private health clubs, private swimming pools, colleges, A & E hospitals, parks, waste disposal sites, and tourist attractions. Private nurseries, Universities, fire stations, general, dental and ophthalmic practices, pawn brokers, ATMs, supermarkets, fast food chains, cafes, public libraries, golf courses, and cinemas showed no clear pattern by deprivation. Thus it appears that in the early 21st century access to resources does not always disadvantage poorer neighbourhoods in the UK. We conclude that we need to ensure that theories and policies are based on up-to-date and context-specific empirical evidence on the distribution of neighbourhood resources, and to engage in further research on interactions between individual and environmental factors in shaping health and health inequalities.

In the Gym: Motives, Meaning and Moral Careers

Drawing upon ethnographic data, this article analyses 'vocabularies of motive' amongst individuals who work out at a private health club in the Greater Manchester area (UK). The article draws a distinction between motives for starting at a gym and motives for continuing, and analyses each separately. It also seeks to draw out, in the latter case, the many motives which conflict with a stereotypical view of 'working out' found in some academic accounts. Working out is not only an instrumental means of cultivating valued bodily attributes, it is argued, nor are its attractions necessarily all 'bodily' (at least narrowly defined) in nature.

The Importance of Social Bonding and Loyalty: An Empirical Investigation Within U.K. Private Health Clubs

ABSTRACT The association between relationship marketing and the desired outcome of creating true loyalty to the business remains under researched. The following addresses this lacuna by empirically studying this relationship in U.K. private health clubs. The findings indicate the prominence of social bonding in creating truly loyal members, which is in contrast to current relationship marketing activities employed within this market segment. In conclusion, it is argued that the findings may well be applicable to other leisure environments, whilst recognising the need for further research.

‘I feel totally at one, totally alive and totally happy’: a psycho-social explanation of the physical activity and mental health relationship

This paper reports findings from a qualitative investigation into the relationship between physical activity and mental health from the experiences of participants on exercise referral schemes. A grounded theory methodology was adopted which used focus groups and semi-structured interviews with participants from three exercise referral schemes in England. Schemes were representative of different types within the UK, and included a local authority leisure centre, a private health club and a local authority leisure centre scheme with organized countryside hikes. Pre- and post-exercise referral intervention focus groups, and interviews with purposively sampled individuals, were undertaken. Eighteen people participated and interviews were audio-taped, transcribed and analyzed. A conceptual framework emerged, and provides a psycho-social explanation for the physical activity and mental health relationship from the perspectives of the participants' who experienced it. The explanation of the relationship from this perspective identifies the core category 'self-acceptance', and the importance and interrelationship of context-related factors (such as social support and the physical environment), for the elicitation of positive experiences for people on exercise referral schemes. Investigating participant's experiences within the social contexts of exercise referral schemes provides an understanding about whether schemes have the potential to influence the mental health of referred patients.

The Role of Self-Esteem in Initiating Physical Activity in Consumption Situations

This study investigates how self-esteem moderates decision-making processes for initiating physical activity in a consumption situation. Kang (2002) developed a structural model that integrates self-participant image congruency (SIC), attitudes, and intentions. This model was used to examine the moderating effects of self-esteem on individual decisions regarding consumption for physical activity. College students (N = 215) completed a questionnaire that included measures of SIC, attitudes, and intentions for joining a private health club, as well as a self-esteem scale (Heatherton &amp; Polivy, 1991). Multiple group analyses using LISREL 8 were conducted between relatively high and low self-esteem participants for physical, performance, and social self-esteem dimensions. The results indicated that the direct influence of SIC on intentions is stronger for participants with high physical self-esteem than for those with low physical self-esteem, whereas the direct impact of attitudes on intentions is greater for low- than for high physical self-esteem participants. Performance self-esteem and social self-esteem, however, did not moderate decision-making processes. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

An empirical investigation of the relationships among service quality, customer satisfaction and psychological commitment in a health club context

This study aimed to test the applicability of a simplified version of the service quality model, proposed by Brady & Cronin (2001) in the context of a health club, and test the degree to which service quality perceptions and customer satisfaction predict psychological commitment and word‐of‐mouth communications. One hundred and seventy five members of a private health club in Greece participated in the study, and completed: a) a service quality scale (measuring interaction quality, physical environment quality, and outcome quality); b) the Sport Commitment Scale (Scanlan et al., 1993); c) an adjusted version of Oliver's (1997) customer satisfaction scale; and d) a three‐item scale measuring word‐of‐mouth communications. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) provided support for the factorial validity of the three primary dimensions. The psychometric properties of all the scales were satisfactory. The results also revealed an adequate fit of the structural model, which accounted for 29% of the variance. The physical environment and outcome dimensions significantly influenced satisfaction, which, in turn, had a stronger influence on word‐of‐mouth communications than on psychological commitment.

Experiences with bacteriological monitoring of pool water.

A bacteriological study was completed on pools and whirlpools operated by hotels and private health clubs in the metropolitan area of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Coliform bacteria, fecal coliform bacteria, and fecal streptococci were found only when other indices showed a drastic deterioration in water quality. Aerobic plate counts were higher, and staphylococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa occurred more often in whirlpools than in swimming pools. There was a correlation between aerobic plate counts and the presence of staphylococci and P. aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa was rare in swimming pools in the absence of staphylococci; however, in whirlpools the organism was often found in the absence of staphylococci, and when aerobic plate counts were low. P. aeruginosa and plate counts in excess of 3,000 per ml occurred more frequently in whirlpools when the free chlorine residual was less than one part per million. The surface film showed concentrations of staphylococci far greater than the pool water. Whirlpools appear to present a different ecosystem that favors the establishment of P. aeruginosa. Staphylococci, but not Staphylococcus aureus, are useful in indicators of pool water quality but better laboratory methodology is required. Additional attention should be directed to the bacteriology of the water surface film, which presents a more direct hazard to bathers.

The Effects of Perceived Activity Choice upon Frequency of Exercise Behavior

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of perceived activity choice upon the frequency of exercise behavior of adult women. Thirty‐six recent enrollees in a private health club were recruited for involvement in a new exercise program. At an initial organizational meeting, subjects ranked their preferences for different activities and completed a number of self‐report inventories. Subjects were paired on the basis of their activity preferences so as to establish two matched groups of subjects. One member of each pair was then randomly assigned to a choice condition while the other was assigned to a no choice control condition. Perceived choice was manipulated at the time of an individual's next visit to the club, with subjects in the choice group being led to believe that their initial activity selections were the basis for their programs whereas subjects in the control group were informed that they had been assigned a standardized exercise program by the club's instructresses. The overall attendance of the choice group was better than that of the control group. Across both groups there was a significant decline in attendance over the 6‐week period but the decrement was significantly greater in the control group. At the conclusion of the 6‐week period, subjects in the choice condition expressed a greater intention to continue exercising at the club than did subjects in the control condition.