Jail Incarceration Research Articles

Peer navigation intervention for individuals with serious mental illness reentering the community after jail incarceration: a qualitative case study

BackgroundCriminal legal system-involved individuals with serious mental illness (SMI) experience more challenges accessing mental health and other community services than those without a history of criminal legal system involvement. A formative qualitative study was conducted to explore feasibility and acceptability and inform the adaptation of a mental health peer navigation intervention for individuals with SMI reentering the community after jail incarceration.MethodsIn-depth qualitative interviews and focus-group discussions were conducted with mental health peer navigators (i.e., certified mental health peer support specialists, peer recovery coaches) and individuals with lived experience of SMI and criminal legal system involvement (N = 20 total). Data were analyzed using applied thematic analysis.ResultsFour major themes emerged: (1) Feasibility and acceptability of peer-provided services: all participants reported that peer navigation services would be feasible and acceptable for individuals with SMI reentering the community after jail incarceration; (2) roles of peer navigators in addressing barriers to care: peers can address barriers to care experienced during community reentry and contribute towards service linkage/engagement; (3) shared identity and combating stigma: having a shared identity with peer navigators may minimize the impact of stigma and make it easier for clients with multiple marginalized identities to seek support; and (4) peer navigator skills and recommendations for the planned program: essential peer navigation skills include authenticity, reliability, active listening, advocacy, trauma-informed care, motivational interviewing, and empathy. Recommendations for the planned program include initiating services while clients are in custody, emphasizing the voluntary nature of peer support, knowing the limits of a peer navigation intervention, and offering support for peer navigators while on the job.ConclusionParticipants saw peer navigation services for individuals with SMI with criminal legal system involvement as potentially feasible and acceptable. Such programs may enhance their impact by offering supportive supervision, emphasizing the voluntary nature of the service, and acknowledging recovery as a self-directed endeavor.

The Distribution of Carceral Harm: County-Level Jail Incarceration and Mortality by Race, Sex, and Age

Jail incarceration remains an overlooked yet crucial component of the U.S. carceral system. Although a growing literature has examined the mortality costs associated with residing in areas with high levels of incarceration, far less is known about how local jails shape this burden at the intersection of race, sex, and age. In this study, I examine the relationship between county-level jail incarceration and age-specific mortality for non-Hispanic Black and White men and women, uniquely leveraging race-specific jail rates to account for the unequal racial distribution of jail exposures. This study finds evidence of positive associations between mortality and jail incarceration: this association peaks in late adulthood (ages 50–64), when increases in jail rates are associated with roughly 3% increases in mortality across all race–sex groups. However, patterns vary at the intersection of race, sex, and age. In particular, I find more marked and consistent penalties among women than among men. Additionally, a distinctly divergent age pattern emerges among Black men, who face insignificant but negative associations at younger ages but steep penalties at older ages—significantly larger among those aged 65 or older relative to their White male and Black female counterparts. Evidence further suggests that the use of race-neutral incarceration measures in prior work may mask the degree of harm associated with carceral contexts, because the jail rate for the total population underestimates the association between jail rates and mortality across nearly all race–age–sex combinations. These findings highlight the need for future ecological research to differentiate between jail and prison incarceration, consider the demographic distribution of incarceration's harms, and incorporate racialized measures of exposure so that we may better capture the magnitude of harm associated with America's carceral state.

Criminal legal system engagement among people who use drugs in Oregon following decriminalization of drug possession

BackgroundIn February 2021, Measure 110 (M110) in Oregon decriminalized noncommercial possession of drugs. We examined criminal legal system (CLS) involvement of people who use drugs (PWUD) 2 years after decriminalization. MethodsWe conducted a quantitative survey of PWUD (N=468) in eight Oregon counties between March and November 2023. We ran multivariable models to examine predictors of CLS involvement and law enforcement stops. ResultsThe majority of PWUD (74 %) reported any past year CLS involvement; 67 % had at least one law enforcement stop (mean of 11.4 and median of 3 law enforcement stops) and 33 % had at least one jail incarceration. Among PWUD whom law enforcement had found to possess drugs (n=101), 77 % had their drugs seized at least once, and 63 % (n=56) were taken into custody for charges that did not include drug use or possession at least once. Younger age, cisgender male identity, unstable housing, and nonurban county location were associated with a higher prevalence of any CLS involvement. PWUD who were unstably housed had 6.80 more law enforcement stops than housed PWUD (95 % CI: 4.03–9.57). PWUD in nonurban counties experienced 9.73 more law enforcement stops than those in urban areas (95 % CI: 4.90–14.56). No significant differences were found by race or ethnicity and CLS involvement. Only 13 % of PWUD were aware that all drugs had been decriminalized. ConclusionsDespite drug decriminalization, the majority of PWUD in our study reported significant CLS engagement and limited M110 knowledge.

County-level jail and state-level prison incarceration and cancer mortality in the United States.

This study examined the association of county-level jail and state-level prison incarceration rates and cancer mortality rates in the United States. Incarceration rates (1995-2018) were sourced from national data and categorized into quartiles. County- and state-level mortality rates (2000-2019) with invasive cancer as the underlying cause of death were obtained from the National Vital Statistics System. Compared with the first quartile (lowest incarceration rate), the second, third, and fourth quartiles (highest incarceration rate) of county-level jail incarceration rate were associated with 1.3%, 2.3%, and 3.9% higher county-level cancer mortality rates, respectively, in adjusted analyses. Compared with the first quartile, the second, third, and fourth quartiles of state-level prison incarceration rate were associated with 1.7%, 2.5%, and 3.9% higher state-level cancer mortality rates, respectively. Associations were more pronounced for liver and lung cancers. Addressing adverse effects of mass incarceration may potentially improve cancer outcomes in affected communities.

The Administration of Youth Justice Through the Lens of Community-Based Service Providers: Risk Factors and Programming Challenges

Since the Youth Criminal Justice Act of 2003 in Canada, the juvenile justice system has prioritized diverting youth away from in-custody sentences (incarceration in jail, prison, or other facilities) and towards a community-based system of justice. Despite this shift, there is limited research directly examining the experience of community-based service providers that were responsible for this shift in adjudicating youth. To understand the experience of working with youth involved in the system, we conducted semi-structured interviews with youth justice workers from one of the largest community-based organizations in a western Canadian province that offer alternatives to custody for at-risk youth. Findings provide a complex depiction of youth risk factors and illustrate the successes and challenges of administering youth justice in a community context.

Exploring Psychological Realism in Bijay Malla’s “Sunglasses” and “The Prisoner and the Dove”

This article explores psychological realism in Bijay Malla’s two stories: “The Prisoner and the Dove” and “Sunglasses.” The study addresses how the characters construct certain thoughts, emotions, and feelings in their minds after observing and experiencing real-world events and conditions. It analyzes the psyches, thoughts, and psychological intricacies of individuals in lifelike situations in Malla’s stories from the viewpoint of psychological realism. The methodology involves a detailed analysis of Malla’s narrative techniques and character portrayals, using the theoretical framework of psychological realism to interpret the mental and emotional states of the characters. By examining the intricacies of the characters’ inner lives and their responses to their environments, the study aims to uncover the psychological depth in the stories. It reveals that Malla effectively presents photographic images of characters’ minds and psyches in both stories. In “Sunglasses,” Malla portrays the contradictory mental state of the narrator after observing his wife’s relationship with another man. In “The Prisoner and the Dove,” Malla presents the psyches and mindsets of political prisoners in jail. These two stories depict the protagonists’ contradictions and complex psyches within contemporary socio-cultural and political environments.

Clusters of Jail Incarcerations in U.S. Counties: 2010–2018

This study investigates the spatiotemporal variations in jail incarcerations in addition to associations with several risk factors and jail incarceration counts at the county level for the period 2010–2018 in the contiguous USA. The disease surveillance software SaTScanTM was used to identify and test purely spatial and spatiotemporal variations in jail incarceration. Significant spatial and space-time clusters with elevated relative risk for jail incarceration were found in analysis. Additionally, a negative binomial regression model was used to predict jail incarcerations counts based on several covariates and found significant and nonrandom spatial clusters of jail incarceration that are explained after adjusting for these covariates. The results in this study provide useful information on possible associations in geographical areas where jail incarceration rates are higher than expected and demonstrate significant correlations between jail incarceration counts and several covariates. The study and its conclusions provide an epidemiological framework for identifying and addressing geographic patterns of unusually high jail incarceration rates in the United States and provide evidence of appropriate locations to further investigate underlying causes of disproportionate incarceration. Supplementary files for this article are available online.

Structural Racism, Mass Incarceration, and Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Severe Maternal Morbidity

Racial and ethnic inequities in the criminal-legal system are an important manifestation of structural racism. However, how these inequities may influence the risk of severe maternal morbidity (SMM) and its persistent racial and ethnic disparities remains underinvestigated. To examine the association between county-level inequity in jail incarceration rates comparing Black and White individuals and SMM risk in California. This population-based cross-sectional study used state-wide data from California on all live hospital births at 20 weeks of gestation or later from January 1, 1997, to December 31, 2018. Data were obtained from hospital discharge and vital statistics records, which were linked with publicly available county-level data. Data analysis was performed from January 2022 to February 2023. Jail incarceration inequity was determined from the ratio of jail incarceration rates of Black individuals to those of White individuals and was categorized as tertile 1 (low), tertile 2 (moderate), tertile 3 (high), with mean cutoffs across all years of 0 to 2.99, 3.00 to 5.22, and greater than 5.22, respectively. This study used race- and ethnicity-stratified mixed-effects logistic regression models with birthing people nested within counties and adjusted for individual- and county-level characteristics to estimate the odds of non-blood transfusion SMM (NT SMM) and SMM including blood transfusion-only cases (SMM; as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention SMM index) associated with tertiles of incarceration inequity. This study included 10 200 692 births (0.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, 13.4% Asian or Pacific Islander, 5.8% Black, 50.8% Hispanic or Latinx, 29.6% White, and 0.1% multiracial or other [individuals who self-identified with ≥2 racial groups and those who self-identified as "other" race or ethnicity]). In fully adjusted models, residing in counties with high jail incarceration inequity (tertile 3) was associated with higher odds of SMM for Black (odds ratio [OR], 1.14; 95% CI, 1.01-1.29 for NT SMM; OR, 1.20, 95% CI, 1.01-1.42 for SMM), Hispanic or Latinx (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.14-1.34 for NT SMM; OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.14-1.27 for SMM), and White (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.93-1.12 for NT SMM; OR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.02-1.17 for SMM) birthing people, compared with residing in counties with low inequity (tertile 1). The findings of this study highlight the adverse maternal health consequences of structural racism manifesting via the criminal-legal system and underscore the need for community-based alternatives to inequitable punitive practices.

Visualizing Jail Incarceration across the Rural-Urban Continuum, 1978 to 2018

In this data visualization, the author depicts four measures of jail incarceration, drawing attention to the growth, variation, and disparities in jail incarceration across the rural-urban continuum in recent decades. Jails are the front door of the criminal legal system and admit millions of people each year. Yet jails have received little attention in sociological research, and existing research tends to focus on large, urban facilities. Here the author analyzes panel data organized at the county-year level to depict variation in four measures of jail incarceration across the rural-urban continuum since 1978. The author finds that jail incarceration rates have tended to increase across the period, but the urban incarceration rate has declined since 2007 as the rural incarceration rate continues to increase. Most people in jail are legally innocent and have not been convicted of a crime, and the Black/white disparity in jail incarceration has decreased over time.

Recent Incarceration, Substance Use, Overdose, and Service Use Among People Who Use Drugs in Rural Communities

Drug use and incarceration have a substantial impact on rural communities, but factors associated with the incarceration of rural people who use drugs (PWUD) have not been thoroughly investigated. To characterize associations between recent incarceration, overdose, and substance use disorder (SUD) treatment access among rural PWUD. For this cross-sectional study, the Rural Opioid Initiative research consortium conducted a survey in geographically diverse rural counties with high rates of overdose across 10 US states (Illinois, Wisconsin, North Carolina, Oregon, Kentucky, West Virginia, Ohio, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont) between January 25, 2018, and March 17, 2020, asking PWUD about their substance use, substance use treatment, and interactions with the criminal legal system. Participants were recruited through respondent-driven sampling in 8 rural US regions. Respondents who were willing to recruit additional respondents from their personal networks were enrolled at syringe service programs, community support organizations, and through direct community outreach; these so-called seed respondents then recruited others. Of 3044 respondents, 2935 included participants who resided in rural communities and reported past-30-day injection of any drug or use of opioids nonmedically via any route. Data were analyzed from February 8, 2022, to September 15, 2023. Recent incarceration was the exposure of interest, defined as a report of incarceration in jail or prison for at least 1 day in the past 6 months. The associations between PWUD who were recently incarcerated and main outcomes of treatment use and overdose were examined using logistic regression. Of 2935 participants, 1662 (56.6%) were male, 2496 (85.0%) were White; the mean (SD) age was 36 (10) years; and in the past 30 days, 2507 (85.4%) reported opioid use and 1663 (56.7%) reported injecting drugs daily. A total of 1224 participants (41.7%) reported recent incarceration, with a median (IQR) incarceration of 15 (3-60) days in the past 6 months. Recent incarceration was associated with past-6-month overdose (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.38; 95% CI, 1.12-1.70) and recent SUD treatment (AOR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.36-1.93) but not recent medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD; AOR, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.82-1.28) or currently carrying naloxone (AOR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.86-1.21). In this cross-sectional study of PWUD in rural areas, participants commonly experienced recent incarceration, which was not associated with MOUD, an effective and lifesaving treatment. The criminal legal system should implement effective SUD treatment in rural areas, including MOUD and provision of naloxone, to fully align with evidence-based SUD health care policies.

Slavery’s Legacy of White Carceral Advantage in the South

Legacy of slavery scholarship has experienced a renaissance as of late, with researchers across numerous disciplines focusing increased attention on the long-term ramifications of America’s original sin. Using quantitative methods these researchers have found that where slavery was deeply entrenched—particularly in the South—racial inequality and Black disadvantage across numerous domains is exacerbated. While this research has contributed enormously to understanding slavery’s legacy in the South and its nefarious consequences for Black communities, little attention has been paid to the other side of slavery’s legacy of inequality—notably, the many ways White populations continue to benefit from slavery. The state’s carceral apparatus represents a significant area of such advantage and, yet, despite the genealogical linkage historians and socio-legal scholars have drawn between the two institutions, few studies empirically examine slavery’s enduring effects on modern incarceration. Using quantitative methods, this article examines whether—and, if so, how—greater slavery levels in Southern counties generates carceral advantage for contemporary White populations. Where slavery levels were once greater, White populations living in those same areas today—relative to White populations living in areas where slavery was less deeply entrenched—have accrued significant formal social control benefits in the form of lower jail incarceration rates. This effect, however, operates indirectly. Mediation analyses reveal the carceral privilege White populations enjoy in higher slave-dependent locales is generated through the advantageous shaping of White social and economic outcomes.

“Even though we're married, I'm single”: The meaning of jail incarceration in romantic relationships

AbstractJail incarceration substantially transforms romantic relationships, and incarceration may alter the commitment between partners, thereby undermining or strengthening relationships. In this article, we use in‐depth interviews with 85 women connected to incarcerated men (as current or former romantic partners) to explore how women articulate relationship changes that stem from their partner's jail incarceration, a common but understudied form of contact with the criminal legal system. We identify three interrelated and mutually reinforcing processes, which are shaped by and shape a partner's commitment to the relationship. First, incarceration produces liminality in the status of the relationship. Second, incarceration fosters women's sense of independence from their incarcerated partners. Third, incarceration creates space for partners to reevaluate how they prioritize the relationship in their lives. Jail incarceration intervenes in romantic relationships at different points during each relationship, and accordingly, women experience heterogeneity in processes of liminality, independence, and reprioritization. These processes contribute to differential relationship experiences, with some relationships deteriorating during incarceration, others strengthening, and others neither deteriorating nor strengthening. By systematically uncovering these processes linking jail incarceration to romantic relationships, we advance an understanding of how the criminal legal system can shape relationship commitment processes and inequalities among families.

The impact of new prison construction on the likelihood of incarceration

AbstractPrison overcrowding is a major public policy issue with roughly 2.2 million individuals currently incarcerated in the United States. In the absence of reductions in the prison population, the only way to address overcrowding are the expansion of current facilities or the construction of new prisons. Previous research has demonstrated that factors unrelated to the law can affect the decisions made by prosecutors and judges. We investigate the effect of newly constructed prisons in Florida on the probability of defendants being sentenced to prison within 6 months of the prison receiving inmates. The results reveal that these defendants have a greater likelihood of being incarcerated in prison compared to similar defendants whose cases were resolved before the prison became operational. This indicates the potential for a regional‐level substitution between jail and prison incarceration.

County-level jail incarceration and cancer mortality in the US.

6535 Background: Incarceration has been linked to poor community health outcomes, such as worse preterm births and mortality in the US, although little research has examined cancer outcomes. This study examined associations of county-level jail incarceration and cancer mortality. Methods: Annual county-level local jail incarceration rates (1990-2018) were obtained from the Vera Institute of Justice. We calculated annual county-level mortality rates (2000 -2019) with invasive cancer as the underlying cause of death (ICD-10 codes: C00-C97) using National Vital Statistics System. Associations of county-level jail incarceration and cancer mortality overall, and by sex, race, and common cancer sites were examined with generalized estimating equations with Poisson distribution and standard errors clustered at county level. To assess the short-, medium-, and long-term associations, we used lagged county-level incarceration rates by 1, 5, and 10 years prior to mortality rates in separate analyses. Results: Over the 20-year study period, each 1 per 1000 increase in county jail incarceration rate was associated with a 1.2% increase in cancer mortality rate in the short-term (model with 1-year lags, rate ratio (RR): 1.012, 95% CI: 1.009–1.015) and 1.1% increase in medium-term (5-year lags (RR: 1.011, 95% CI: 1.008–1.014) and 0.8% increase long-term (10-year lags (RR: 1.008, 95% CI: 1.004–1.012). After adjusting for county-level sociodemographic characteristics, the RRs were attenuated but remained statistically significant. Jail incarceration was associated with higher cancer mortality for all common cancers included in the study (Table) and for White people, but not for Black people. The magnitude of associations was similar for medium- and long-term effects (5- and 10-year lags, respectively). Conclusions: Higher county-level jail incarceration rates were associated with higher county-level cancer mortality rates, underscoring the collateral health consequences of mass incarceration. Efforts to identify interventions to decrease the cancer mortality burden in these communities are warranted. [Table: see text]

Walking My Path Together with W. W. Phelps

Walking My Path Together with W. W. Phelps

RELIGIOUS REHABILITATION PROGRAM TO CHANGE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS OF INDONESIAN PRISONERS

The lack of clarity of religious values in rehabilitation program conducted for prisoners in jails has been the cause of a failure of the rehabilitation process of prisoners. This research aims to examine the implementation of the prisoner rehabilitation program and offer relevant components of humanist values for rehabilitation in prisons. The research method used a naturalistic qualitative approach and an analytical descriptive data analysis technique, and revealed in detail the prisoner rehabilitation program through the developing of religious values for behavioral change. This research showed that the prisoner rehabilitation programs in prisons is a very significant effort to bring behavioral change in prisoners. Despite this, the evaluation undertaken of the rehabilitation program shows sub-optimal results. It was found that application of humanist values can replace prohibitions and punishment which are applied on prisoners. The research has implications for positive changes in prisoner behavior which tend to be more grounded in consciousness than fear of prohibition and punishment. This research provides further evidence as to the effectiveness of the humanist approach in prisoner religious rehabilitation.

Sex and aging: Perspectives of older adult women with experience of incarceration

To explore perspectives on sexuality, sexual health, and sexual health care of older adult women with a history of criminal legal system involvement, we conducted phone interviews with women aged 50 years or older who were living in the community but had a history of jail and/or prison incarceration. Interview questions and initial analysis were guided by the sexual health framework for public health and Mitchell’s sexual wellness model. Data analysis followed a framework method. Nine women, aged 53–66, participated in phone interviews between December 2020 and December 2021. Slightly over half the participants were Black; none were Hispanic. Most were single. We formulated a sex-in-aging (SAGE) framework comprising three categories and two overarching themes. Women with a history of criminal-legal system involvement have heterogeneous views on sex and sexual health and describe a range of desire and sexual activity as they age, including shifting ideas about what they expect from partners, how they keep themselves safe in sexual and intimate relationships, and how life circumstances that are often associated with criminal legal system involvement (substance use, trauma) impact their interest in sex as they age. The SAGE framework integrates these categories and themes and offers a starting point for further research and intervention development.

County-level jail incarceration, community economic distress, rurality, and preterm birth among women in the US South.

The USA has higher rates of preterm birth and incarceration than any other developed nation, with rates of both being highest in Southern states and among Black Americans, potentially due to rurality and socioeconomic factors. To test our hypothesis that prior-year county-level rates of jail admission, economic distress, and rurality were positively associated with premature birth rates in the county of delivery in 2019 and that the strength of these associations is greater for Black women than for White or Hispanic women, we merged five datasets to perform multivariable analysis of data from 766 counties across 12 Southern/rural states. We used multivariable linear regression to model the percentage of babies born premature, stratified by Black (Model 1), Hispanic (Model 2), and White (Model 3) mothers. Each model included all three independent variables of interest measured using data from the Vera Institute, Distressed Communities Index, and Index of Relative Rurality. In fully fitted stratified models, economic distress was positively associated with premature births among Black (F = 33.81, p < 0.0001) and White (F = 26.50, p < 0.0001) mothers. Rurality was associated with premature births among White mothers (F = 20.02, p < 0.0001). Jail admission rate was not associated with premature births among any racial group, and none of the study variables were associated with premature births among Hispanic mothers. Understanding the connections between preterm birth and enduring structural inequities is a necessary scientific endeavor to advance to later translational stages in health-disparities research.

A consequence of mass incarceration: county-level association between jail incarceration rates and poor mental health days

IntroductionMass incarceration has mental health consequences on those directly affected; some studies have also shown spillover effects on the physical health of the surrounding population. There is a dearth of research on the spillover mental health consequences of mass incarceration. This study aimed to quantify a consequence of mass incarceration which may adversely affect the population’s health and widen health disparities.MethodsUsing data from the Vera Institute’s Incarceration Trends 2.2 and the Robert Wood Johnson County Health Rankings, the association between county-level (n = 2823) counts of jail incarceration and reported number of poor mental health days within the past 30 days in the United States in 2018 was examined. To conduct the analysis, a negative binomial regression model was fit, adjusting for State and key demographic covariates.ResultsA change in jail incarceration rate from the first to the second and third tertiles was associated with 10.14% and 14.52% increases, respectively. For every 1% increase in the rate of mass incarceration, there was a statistically significant 15% increase in the average number of reported poor mental health days over the past 30 days.DiscussionMass incarceration is a threat to mental health as well as the well-being of the surrounding population. This can be attributed to the spillover effects that extend beyond those who are directly affected by mass incarceration.Interventions to reduce jail incarceration as well as address the mental health needs of those living in high-incarceration rate areas should be prioritized in order to reduce health inequities and augment health outcomes for all residents of the United States.

On the Body

On the Body