Prison Classification Research Articles

Gender-responsive Classification of Women in Prison: A Typology Based on Mental Health Symptoms and Coping Strategies.

Despite the increase in the incarceration rates of women, most correctional practices are still normed on male samples, including prison classification. Moreover, those classifications do not take into account women's particular experiences, needs, and unique pathways to criminality. The current research proposes a typology based on female prisoners' mental health symptoms and coping strategies. The data was derived from a survey conducted with 194 women housed in a Northeastern prison. A two-step clustering analysis was used to obtain three classification types-each with different symptomatology, coping mechanisms, demographic, and background characteristics. The results suggest that identifying and relying on needs-based typologies has important correctional policy implications in terms of the management and the treatment of incarcerated women.

The State of Mental Health Services for Incarcerated Adults in Ontario: A Scoping Review.

Individuals with mental illness are significantly overrepresented in the Canadian justice system. Given the high rate of mental illness among individuals who are incarcerated, correctional facilities must implement accessible and effective mental health resources. This not only improves their health and well-being but also contributes to their rehabilitation efforts. However, evidence suggests that the care provided in prisons is inadequate. This scoping review asks, "What is known about the access and quality of mental health care services for adults who are incarcerated in Ontario?" Mental health care services included non-acute interventions and care that is provided in the institution. This scoping review followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews methodology. Databases searched include MedLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Criminal Justice Abstracts, JSTOR, Google Scholar, and the grey literature. The search yielded 354 titles and abstracts of which 16 met the inclusion criteria. Conducted from 2010-2022, the 16 studies included qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Common themes that were identified related to segregation, mental health assessments, medication prescribing and access, opioid agonist therapy, psychiatric service access, systemic and institutional barriers, mental health perception, and the need for collaboration. Despite the significant demand for mental health care in Ontario correctional facilities, limitations to quality care are evident. Such limitations intersect and are then exacerbated, resulting in poor mental health care provision among the incarcerated population. More research is warranted regarding the access, quality, and efficiency of mental health care in Ontario prisons, and how factors including ethnicity, gender, and prison classification (provincial vs. federal) may influence mental health care and its outcomes.

Toward a History of Sexual Violence behind Bars

Toward a History of Sexual Violence behind Bars

The veneers of empiricism: Gender, race and prison classification

Gender-based approaches to security classification ought to be responsive to qualitative and quantitative research that demonstrates the gendered socio-cultural histories and experiences of women. Additionally, gender responsivity necessitates an intersectional understanding of how gender inequalities are compounded for certain groups of women and girls because of their age, ethnicity, race, mental health needs and/or disabilities. However, many correctional systems continue to use a single classification instrument to assign security levels to both men and women, even though many of the factors which predict male behaviour do not operate similarly for women. This paper analzyes the security classification of federally sentenced women in Canada to examine how generic classification tools continue to be used and considered valid within epistemic contexts in which gender- and racial-neutrality are taken to be plausible and possible. Second, we argue that because the criteria used in tools fail to conceptually and methodologically account for gender and race, women are often overclassified. The impacts of this over classification are especially acute for Indigenous women, who are overrepresented in both the federal women's prison population and in maximum security, which has the most restrictive conditions of confinement. Finally, we argue that because racially neutral contexts do not exist, holistic security assessments that are explicitly attentive to race and gender, are preferable.

A contrastive analysis of the factorial structure of the PCL-R: Which model fits best the data?

The aim of this study was to determine which of the factorial solutions proposed for the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) of two, three, four factors, and unidimensional fitted best the data. Two trained and experienced independent raters scored 197 prisoners from the Villabona Penitentiary (Asturias, Spain), age range 21 to 73 years (M = 36.0, SD = 9.7), of whom 60.12% were reoffenders and 73% had committed violent crimes. The results revealed that the two-factor correlational, three-factor hierarchical without testlets, four-factor correlational and hierarchical, and unidimensional models were a poor fit for the data (CFI ≤ .86), and the three-factor model with testlets was a reasonable fit for the data (CFI = .93). The scale resulting from the three-factor hierarchical model with testlets (13 items) classified psychopathy significantly higher than the original 20-item scale. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for theoretical models of psychopathy, decision-making, prison classification and intervention, and prevention.

Predicting Infractions and Health Care Utilization in Prison

This meta-analysis was conducted to examine predictors of two indicators of inmates’ adjustment to prison life: institutional infractions and health care utilization. Focusing on male prisoners, the final data set consisted of 90 studies and produced 1,815 correlations. Predictors were grouped into personal and contextual characteristics. Regarding institutional infractions, the strongest personal predictors were prior prison misconduct, aggressiveness, impulsiveness, antisocial traits, institutional risk, and younger age. At the contextual level, higher infraction rates were observed in prisons with more gang activity, and in prisons housing more inmates and a larger proportion of maximum security inmates. Major correlates of health care utilization were prior mental health problems, older age, and physical symptoms. Moderator effects were observed for prison sample size, sample selection, length of follow-up, geographic location, and type of analysis. These findings may help to improve prison classification procedures to optimize prisoners’ management and treatment.

Developing a Risk and Needs Assessment Instrument for Prison Inmates

The assessment of inmate risk and need in prison poses a unique challenge to correctional policy makers because it is used for two purposes: classification and case management. Classification and case management require assessment instruments that are designed to predict two separate outcomes: institutional misconduct and community recidivism. The current research examines differences between a prison classification instrument developed to predict misconduct and a case management instrument developed to predict community recidivism using a sample of 414 inmates in Ohio. The results indicated substantial differences between assessment instruments and that separate risk and needs assessments should be conducted. A hybrid assessment system is suggested that seeks to maximize accuracy and efficiency by including select factors from each instrument.

Recidivism Rates Among Mentally Ill Inmates

This study compares data from the Connecticut Offender Reentry Program (CORP) and retrospective data for inmates who received standard treatment planning services from the Connecticut Department of Mental Health and Addictions Services (DMHAS). Analysis of DMHAS data investigated characteristics (demographic, psychiatric, and prison classification scores) and recidivism rates of 883 individuals. A program evaluation was later completed on a separate cohort of 88 individuals who participated in CORP. Comparison of the study results found that 14.1% of the CORP participants were rearrested within 6 months of discharge compared to 28.3% of the DMHAS group. This study concluded that younger age and having a co-occurring substance use disorder appear to be predictors of recidivism. A distinctly smaller percentage of CORP participants were recidivistic, indicating support for specialized reentry programs.

Patterns of Disturbed Behavior in a Supermax Population

Results of a systematic survey of the clinical status of supermax residents, showing the association of mental health issues with disruptive behavior, are followed by eight brief case studies. The survey covers 131 inmates selected at random from Washington's supermax facilities, representing almost half the residents. From interviews with 87 of these inmates, combined with reviews of medical and institutional behavior records, it is concluded that 45% of supermax residents suffer from serious mental illness, marked psychological symptoms, psychological breakdowns, or brain damage. With this empirical grounding, an argument is presented that the concept of disturbed behavior, notwithstanding its lack of a clear diagnostic reference, is needed if we are to understand interactions between prison settings and the mental health issues of prisoners. The clinical profile and histories of disturbed prisoners provide reasons to establish greater flexibility in prison classification and disciplinary procedures, especially those that determine how long prisoners stay in supermax. Institutional obstacles to flexibility are diagnosed, and the possibility of shrinking supermax populations is proposed.

Third generation prison classification: the manitoba case

Some investigators have recommended the use of a single instrument for both community‐based and incarcerated offenders to simplify offender classification. To assess the feasibility of such a practice, we compared a community/institutional classification instrument, the Primary Risk Assessment (PRA), with the Institutional Security Assessment (ISA), a device intended solely for custodial settings. Sentenced inmate admissions for 1997 (N = 1064) had three outcome criteria applied: proportion of inmates assigned to each security category, institutional misconduct, and recidivism rates. In direct comparison, the ISA outperformed the PRA in predicting institutional violations and reoffence. Study findings did not support the use of a community corrections based instrument in an institutional setting. Both instruments posed problems, however, with respect to the proportions of inmates assigned to appropriate security categories. Results supported the development of an integrated, third generation instrument to improve inmate classification.

A Theoretical Revolution in Corrections

The articles in the special issue are reviewed within the context of current trends and the state of the art in prison classification systems. A paradigm shift is noted to be occurring within the field, wherein the medical model is being abandoned for a multipurpose model of classification. The purposes are understanding, prediction, management, and treatment. Each of these purposes is discussed with special emphasis on problems inherent in the prediction model when used in isolation. Implications of the paradigm shift are discussed in terms of the future of psychologists' roles within corrections.

The Validity of Prison Classification: An Introduction to Practical Considerations and Research Issues

Many prison classification systems include risk assessment instruments designed to assign individuals to institutions varying in security features or to levels of supervision differing in staffing patterns and the extent of inmate privileges. Decision criteria that make up classification instruments are selected to measure inmate attributes as information that predicts the occurrence or rates of prison disciplinary problems. The present article is an introduction to research designs and methods for use in the validation of classification instruments. Hypothetical validity findings are presented to demonstrate their critical role in the development of a classification system. Finally, it is concluded that validation research, whether for management or scientific purposes, is optimally conducted in a program of research designed to evaluate the risk assessment instrument in the context of other components of the classification system and environmental variables that influence validity criterion behavior.

Evaluating How Well Your Classification System is Operating: A Practical Approach

With the wide adoption by many states of objective prison classification systems, there has been an associated expectation among prison officials that these new systems would foster improved prison operations and reductions in prison violence. However, this has not always been the case. Failure to realize these expectations can be more accurately traced to improperly designed or implemented classification systems rather than the validity of these systems as originally designed. This article applies the lessons of one state (California) to propose a methodology for evaluating how well designed a particular model is and if implementation is occurring as intended. Referred to as “process evaluation,” this approach is intended to assist prison officials to “fine tune” their classification systems and establish a method for accurately monitoring the most critical aspects of prison operations.

National Evaluation of Objective Prison Classification Systems: The Current State of the Art

This article summarizes the first national evaluation of objective prison classification systems. Conducted by Correctional Services Group, Inc., this study focused on the development and implementation activities of correctional agencies having objective systems and analyzed the effectiveness of three representative systems. Although a majority of agencies view objective systems as important management tools, the study found that inadequate planning and validation hindered many developmental efforts. An examination of three specific systems found that although individual classification scoring items evidenced only modest correlations with prison misconduct, the instruments as a whole demonstrated a capacity to classify according to risk. The article concludes with suggested guidelines for developing, implementing, and revising objective prison classification systems.

Assessing the New Generation of Prison Classification Models

A number of new prison classification models are being promoted throughout the country. These objective models purport to improve equity, reduce costs, and make the classification decision-making process itself more explicit to inmates and staff. This paper uses computer simulations to test the effects of three well known models on the Nevada State Prison population. Results show that adoption of any of the three models would produce similar results; massive expansion of the minimum security beds, increased equity and explicitness in classification decision-making. Whether or not correctional officials utilize these models will depend upon the correctional administrator's willingness to accept these models as designed. Assuming these findings apply to other states, the nation's current inventory of minimum security beds and the capacity of community correctional systems need to be expanded to handle the large number of minimum security inmates now occupying expensive medium and maximum security bed space.

“WOMEN'S PRISONS” AND “MEN'S PRISONS”: SHOULD PRISONERS BE CLASSIFIED BY SEX?

What are the differences between “women's prisons” and “men's prisons”? That question is answered in this article, which documents that many institutions “for” women do not provide services designed specially for women, or anyone else. Moreover, some women's prisons provide fewer vocational, recreational, and educational programs than do institutions “for” men. Given the growing literature on the disparity of services and on the relative deprivations faced by many women prisoners, the author questions whether segregation by sex should continue to be used as a major premise of prison classification systems.

Comments on the History of Plea Bargaining

Criminal law in the early nineteenth century was based on the of Beccaria, Bentham, and other utilitarian philosophers. Because the primary goal of punishment was deterrence, sentences were to be determined according to the offense rather than the offender. By the end of the century a penology had emerged, based on a philosophy of individualized sanctions that sought to reform (later to rehabilitate) the offender. In an effort to make the punishment fit the individual a variety of new procedures were introduced, such as indeterminate sentences, prison classification systems, juvenile courts, different penalties for youthful offenders, and presentence investigations (Vasoli, 1965:405). Parole and probation also developed during this period; the latter evolved from the common law practice of suspending sentence into a more formal program involving probation officers who made written reports to the court, and supervised the convict's compliance with the restrictive conditions of probation. For example, California's probation law, Penal Code ? 1203, although enacted in 1872, was substantially rewritten in 1903 to create probation in its more modern form. Between 1903 and 1923 the statute was amended eight times to refine probation as an alternative in sentencing. Not everyone accepted these penal reforms, however, and public reaction in the 1920s called for greater severity in sentencing. Roscoe Pound noted unhappily that before these penal innovations could fully be implemented and experts

Effects of Unemployment on White and Negro Prison Admissions in Louisiana

D. A. Dobbins is associated with the Louisiana Department of Institutions as Research Statistician. Earlier he had spent three years with private industry. He is author of several research reports in the area of delinquency and statistics. Bernard M. Bass, who has served as Research Consultant to the State Department of Institutions, is Professor of Psychology at Louisiana State University. He has served as personnel consultant to various industries, and directed contract research for the USAF Aero-Medical Laboratories, and for the Office of Naval Research Group Psychology Branch. He is author of articles in the areas of leadership, statistics, personnel assessment and stress. These authors have already contributed to this Journal. See IBM 'Mark Sense' Cards in Prison classification and Criminological Research, 47, 4 (November-December, 1956, pp 436 ff.)-EDITOR.

IBM "Mark Sense" Cards in Prison Classification and Criminological Research

IBM "Mark Sense" Cards in Prison Classification and Criminological Research

The Terman-Miles“M-F”Test and the Prison Classification Program

(1941). The Terman-Miles “M-F” Test and the Prison Classification Program. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology: Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 27-40.