Prior Vocabulary Knowledge Research Articles

Incidental learning of collocations through reading an academic text

Abstract This study investigated the incidental learning of collocations in two reading modes (reading-only (RO), reading-while-listening (RWL)), taking into account additional learner- and collocation-related predictors of learning (e.g., congruency). An academic text was used, as this could be a useful source for vocabulary learning for university-level English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Sixty-eight advanced Spanish EFL learners read a text containing 14 target collocations, in the RO or the RWL condition. Learning gains were measured in terms of form recall and form recognition. Results showed that collocations can be learnt incidentally from reading. While reading mode did not influence learning, congruency and prior vocabulary knowledge improved form recall, emphasising the importance of features specific to individual learners and collocations for vocabulary learning.

Incidental vocabulary learning from listening, reading, and viewing captioned videos: frequency and prior vocabulary knowledge

Abstract The present study, given increasing attention to incidental vocabulary learning, explores how different input modes (i.e., listening, reading, and viewing captioned videos) affect such learning while considering frequency and prior vocabulary knowledge. One hundred twenty Chinese university students learning English as a foreign language were allocated to three treatment groups and one (test-only) control group. Target words included 48 terms appearing at various frequencies (1–6 occurrences) in a documentary video. Incidental vocabulary learning outcomes were measured through form and meaning recognition. Mixed effects models showed that the caption viewing condition led to the most pronounced incidental vocabulary learning and retention outcomes, followed by the reading and listening conditions. A significant interaction effect was identified between time, group, and prior vocabulary knowledge. A significant interaction effect was also observed between time, group, and frequency. Meanwhile, frequency was less important for incidental vocabulary learning than prior vocabulary knowledge. Pedagogical implications are discussed based on these findings.

The impact of input, input repetition, and task repetition on L2 lexical use and fluency in speaking

The present study investigates the impact of meaningful input on L2 learners’ vocabulary use and their fluency in oral performance (immediate and repeat tasks), as well as whether the effects are mediated by learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory. Ninety university students learning English as a foreign language were randomly assigned to one of three groups: input (N = 29), input repetition (N = 32), and no-input (i.e., baseline group) (N = 29). The input group watched L2 videos prior to performing an immediate oral task, whereas the input repetition group watched the same videos not only before but also after the immediate oral task. The no-input group only performed the oral tasks without watching the videos. The three groups repeated the same oral task after two days. Results did not show a significant effect of task repetition, input, and input repetition on learners’ lexical use and fluency. However, the fluency and lexical complexity in learners’ L2 speech can be predicted by their receptive vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to some extent.

Incidental collocation learning from reading-while-listening and captioned TV viewing and predictors of learning gains

Although a number of previous studies have shown that TV viewing can lead to incidental vocabulary learning, most of them focused on single words. Little research has examined the effect of captioned TV viewing on incidental collocation learning compared with other modes of input. In addition, research on the factors that affect incidental collocation from different input modes is still relatively scarce and has produced inconclusive findings. To fill those research gaps, the present study investigates the effects of reading-while-listening and captioned TV viewing on incidental collocation learning and predictors of learning gains. Eighty Vietnamese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group encountered 24 target collocations in two stories in two modes of input (reading-while-listening and viewing videos with second language captions) in a counterbalanced fashion over four weeks. Learning was assessed at the level of form recall. The findings indicated that both modes of input resulted in equally significant gains of collocational knowledge. In addition, learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and collocational congruency were significant predictors of learning gains. Learners with larger vocabulary knowledge picked up significantly more collocations in reading-while-listening but fewer collocations in captioned TV viewing than learners with smaller vocabulary knowledge.

The Effects of Repeated Oral Reading Practice on the Retention of High-Frequency Multiword Items for EFL Learners: Multiple Dimensions

Research has shown that second language (L2) learners generally lack multiword expression knowledge, and L2 researchers and practitioners have tried various techniques to assist L2 learners to acquire it more efficiently. This study adopted an under-researched technique—repeated oral reading—to enhance the retention of high-frequency multiword items by 62 EFL college students divided into experimental (n =38) and control (n =24) groups. Fifteen unfamiliar multiword items comprising only known individual words were selected through a pre-test based on a theme-based text. All students received a formal instruction first, followed by the experimental group orally reading the text six times under a time constraint. A two-week delayed post-test was used to test students’ retention of four dimensions of multiword knowledge: aural forms and aural meanings, and written meanings and use. Except for use, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in the other three dimensions. Four fixed factors (oral reading speed, prior vocabulary knowledge, dimensions of multiword knowledge, and the number of words per item) were analyzed via GLMM. Results showed three factors had significant effects on retaining multiword items except oral reading speed. Based on the results, pedagogical implications are discussed and suggestions are made.

Incidental vocabulary learning from captioned videos: Learners' prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory

AbstractBackgroundDespite the potential of captioned videos, limited attention has been paid to the role of vocabulary knowledge (VK) and working memory (WM) in incidental vocabulary learning under different captioning conditions.ObjectivesThe present study aimed to bridge this gap by assessing VK and WM in incidental vocabulary learning under different captioning conditions.MethodsA total of 101 Chinese primary school students were assigned to one of the three conditions: watch fully captioned videos (n = 33), watch keyword captioned videos (n = 35), and watch videos without captions (n = 33). A vocabulary test measuring recognition and recall of form and meaning served as a pretest, posttest and delayed posttest. The learners also completed tests for VK and WM.Results and ConclusionsThe findings supported that both full captions and keyword captions made significant contributions to the incidental learning of form recognition and initial meaning recall and to the retention of form recognition but not of delayed meaning recall. The parameters of breadth and depth of VK and phonological WM impacted incidental vocabulary learning outcomes. The findings emphasized the important role of full captioning and keyword captioning for incidental vocabulary learning and the need to consider the role of VK and WM in incidental vocabulary learning from captioned videos.TakeawaysCaptioning is a promising tool for vocabulary learning, but individual differences in VK and WM should be considered to maximize the benefits of captioning on vocabulary learning.

How Working Memory and Prior Vocabulary Knowledge Influence the Impact of Task Repetition on L2 Oral Performance: Insights into Vietnamese EFL Learners

The present study investigates the effect of task repetition and individual differences on Vietnamese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ lexical use and fluency in oral task performance. The study adopts a within-subjects design with forty students performing the same narrative task twice. Students also completed two prior vocabulary knowledge tests (i.e., a receptive size test and a productive level test) and two working memory tests (i.e., a backward-span task and a Vietnamese-version operation-span task). Lexical complexity was measured in two aspects (i.e., lexical sophistication and lexical diversity). Fluency was assessed in terms of articulation rate. Unlike previous studies, our study surprisingly did not reveal an effect of task repetition on lexical complexity and fluency. Interestingly, prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory appeared to be good predictors of learners’ lexical complexity and fluency.

Attention to verbal morphology in L2 Arabic reading: An eye‐movement study

AbstractAttention is believed to help facilitate learning. Godfroid and Uggen found that attention to irregular verb morphology motivated the learning of novel second language (L2) German forms. The current study explored the generalizability of these findings to geminate and sound verbs in Arabic, a typologically different language with a novel writing system. Eleven fourth‐semester learners of Arabic participated in the experiment. Participants completed a language learning background survey, took a fill‐in‐the blank pretest, read 20 sentence pairs while an Eyelink 1000 recorded their eye movements, and answered true/false comprehension questions that appeared on‐screen following each sentence. A posttest, identical to the pretest, and a prior vocabulary knowledge scale task were then conducted. Learners' reflections were recorded in a subsequent recall task and a follow‐up semistructured interview. Descriptive analyses of the eye‐tracking metrics reveal generally equivalent reading times between verb types, although participants made more direct visual comparisons between geminate‐ than between sound‐verb conjugations. Participants did not report awareness of geminate verbs, but noticed other aspects of input, and, on average, improved their written productive knowledge by 2% after only one exposure. Pedagogical implications are discussed in terms of input enhancement in a communicative L2 classroom.

An Empirical Study of the Effects of Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Listening to Songs.

Most studies have shown that reading is an important source of incidental vocabulary learning, and repeated reading may have a positive effect on learning gains. However, the study of incidental vocabulary learning through listening is still limited, and the immediate and long-term effects on different vocabulary knowledge dimensions are unclear. Furthermore, no empirical studies have been conducted to investigate the association between learning gains and preexisting vocabulary knowledge in listening. This article examines the effects of listening to English songs on unintentional vocabulary learning and vocabulary retention through three different vocabulary knowledge dimensions: word recognition, meaning association, and grammar identification. A total of 114 Chinese college students participated in the study, and they were given vocabulary evaluations at different times based on three separate components of vocabulary knowledge. The effects of repeated listening (one, three, and five times) and learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge were also investigated. According to the findings, listening to songs can improve vocabulary knowledge, particularly in the area of word recognition, which can be retained 4 weeks later. Furthermore, the effect of listening three times (with exposure frequencies ranging from three to nine) was superior than listening one or five times, which provides teachers and learners with guidance for teaching or learning vocabulary more effectively. Finally, for low, intermediate, and high-level learners, there was an immediate and positive effect on the dimensions of word recognition and meaning connection after listening, and this knowledge is likely to be preserved 4 weeks later.

Comparing L2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Viewing, Listening, and Reading

The aim of this study is to determine the most effective mode of input for L2 vocabulary learning by investigating three types of input: audiovisual input, audio input, and written input. Using a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design, this study recruited 95 university EFL students who were randomly assigned to four groups. The same TV documentary was presented to each group in four different modes: viewing the documentary, listening to the documentary, reading the printed transcript, and a control condition in which no treatment was given. Vocabulary learning, which was operationalized as the receptive knowledge of the form-meaning connection of the target words was measured by checklist and multiple-choice tests. Two variables were considered in the investigation: prior vocabulary knowledge and the word frequency of occurrence. The findings suggest that participants learned vocabulary incidentally through viewing, listening, and reading. They also successfully retained gained vocabulary through the three modes of input. The study found no significant differences in vocabulary gains between viewing and reading on the posttests suggesting that vocabulary gain and retention are similar through these types of input modes. The study found a significant impact of prior vocabulary knowledge and frequency of occurrence on vocabulary learning. As the results suggest that viewing is as effective as reading, this study provides further support for the use of television in L2 learning.

Incidental L2 vocabulary learning from audiovisual input: the effects of different types of glosses

Despite increasing number of studies on incidental vocabulary learning through viewing in a foreign language, glosses, which have been proven to have facilitative effects in incidental vocabulary learning via other modes of input, have remained underexplored in audiovisual input. The current study investigates the effects of (1) traditional gloss (TG), (2) multiple-choice gloss (MCG) and (3) no gloss (NG) conditions on incidental L2 vocabulary learning through viewing animated short videos. Turkish-L1 upper-intermediate to advanced EFL learners (N = 127), who were randomly assigned to three conditions, watched three short, animated videos twice. The results revealed that while the MCG group and the TG group significantly outperformed the NG group in vocabulary meaning recall test, there was not a significant difference between the glossed conditions. The results also suggested that the participants learnt new words through interacting with MCGs. Furthermore, the participants’ prior vocabulary knowledge positively correlated with incidental vocabulary learning from the videos. The results are discussed within the framework of previous research and the Involvement Load Hypothesis.

A Longitudinal Study on the Effect of Mode of Reading on Incidental Collocation Learning and Predictors of Learning Gains

AbstractThis article reports on a longitudinal study on the impact of reading mode on incidental collocation learning and predictors of learning gains. The experiment lasted 11 weeks and involved 118 Vietnamese EFL learners who were assigned to an experimental group and a no‐treatment control group. The experimental group encountered 32 target collocations in three graded readers in three reading modes: reading‐while‐listening, reading with textual input enhancement (i.e., underlining), and reading‐while‐listening plus textual input enhancement in a counterbalanced fashion. Incidental learning was assessed at the level of form recall. The findings indicated a significant effect of reading mode on the learning of collocations. Significantly more collocations were learned in reading‐while‐listening plus textual input enhancement and reading with textual input enhancement modes than in reading‐while‐listening mode. Reading‐while‐listening plus textual input enhancement, however, did not differ significantly from reading with textual input enhancement. The results also revealed that learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and collocational congruency significantly affected learning.

Incidental l2 vocabulary learning through listening vs. viewing: the role of visual aid

There is limited research on the effectiveness of aural versus audiovisual input in incidental second language vocabulary learning (IVL). The current study aims to determine which mode of input, viewing or listening, is more conducive to IVL, and if the level of visual aid for the words leads to a significant difference in word gains. English Language Teaching majors (N=58) were randomly assigned to either watch animated educational videos or listen to the audio of the same videos. Both groups were given a pretest and posttest of meaning recognition and recall. The results suggest that both modes of input are equally effective for vocabulary learning and that the role of visual aids may not be as significant as previously thought. The study also found that prior vocabulary knowledge level positively correlated with vocabulary gains in the viewing group, but not in the listening group. The results are discussed in reference to the multimedia, temporal contiguity, and coherence principles of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and the dual-coding theory.

Incidental lexical mining in task repetition: The role of input, input repetition and individual differences

The present study examined the effects of input, input repetition and individual differences (i.e., prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory) on L2 learners’ incidental lexical mining in an immediate and a repeat oral task. Ninety participants were allocated to three groups: input (n = 32), input repetition (n = 29), and no input (n = 29). The input group was exposed to input before performing an immediate oral task, whereas the input repetition group was exposed to input before and after performing the immediate oral task. The no input group only performed the oral task without input exposure. Three groups repeated the same oral task after two days. Lexical mining was measured as the number of words and formulaic sequences shared between the oral tasks and the input text. The findings showed that the participants could mine both single words and formulaic sequences in the immediate and the repeat oral task. Yet, while the number of shared words in the repeat oral task was the same as in the immediate oral task, the number of shared formulaic sequences was lower. There was no effect of input repetition on lexical mining in the repeat oral task. Finally, only prior vocabulary knowledge was positively correlated to lexical mining.

INCIDENTAL LEARNING OF COLLOCATIONS FROM MEANINGFUL INPUT

AbstractThis longitudinal study investigates the effect of mode of reading on the incidental learning of collocations and factors that affect learning. One hundred Vietnamese pre-intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) were assigned to either an experimental group or a control group (no treatment). In 9 weeks, the experimental group read three graded readers containing 32 target collocations in three counterbalanced reading modes: reading-only, reading-while-listening, and reading with textual input enhancement (i.e., underlining). Learning gains were measured by a form recall pretest and delayed posttest. The results showed that reading mode had a significant effect on incidental collocation learning. Reading with textual input enhancement resulted in significantly higher learning gains than the other reading modes. Reading-while-listening was also more beneficial for collocation learning than reading-only. Learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and congruency of collocations were significant predictors of the learning gains.

Learning phrasal verbs in the EFL classroom: the effect of prior vocabulary knowledge and opacity

Abstract Although it is widely acknowledged that phrasal verbs constitute a major difficulty for language learners, only a few studies have examined how to best learn phrasal verbs in the EFL context. With the aim of addressing this gap in the literature, the current study compared the influence of different learning conditions on phrasal verb knowledge development. The 77 EFL participants were divided into two experimental groups (incidental learning vs. enhanced exposure) and a control group. While the incidental learning group read the target phrasal verbs within restaurant reviews, the enhanced exposure group had the phrasal verbs bolded and underlined in the same texts and the control group did not receive any treatment. The participants’ performance on the post-test revealed a clear advantage for enhanced exposure over incidental learning. The results also revealed a significant relationship between the participants’ prior vocabulary knowledge and their phrasal verb knowledge, and that opacity and vocabulary knowledge modulated learning gains. The results are discussed in light of the existing literature. Pedagogical implications and directions for future research are highlighted.

Learning phrasal verbs in the EFL classroom: the effect of prior vocabulary knowledge and opacity

AbstractAlthough it is widely acknowledged that phrasal verbs constitute a major difficulty for language learners, only a few studies have examined how to best learn phrasal verbs in the EFL context. With the aim of addressing this gap in the literature, the current study compared the influence of different learning conditions on phrasal verb knowledge development. The 77 EFL participants were divided into two experimental groups (incidental learning vs. enhanced exposure) and a control group. While the incidental learning group read the target phrasal verbs within restaurant reviews, the enhanced exposure group had the phrasal verbs bolded and underlined in the same texts and the control group did not receive any treatment. The participants’ performance on the post-test revealed a clear advantage for enhanced exposure over incidental learning. The results also revealed a significant relationship between the participants’ prior vocabulary knowledge and their phrasal verb knowledge, and that opacity and vocabulary knowledge modulated learning gains. The results are discussed in light of the existing literature. Pedagogical implications and directions for future research are highlighted.

An Intelligent Ubiquitous Learning Environment and Analytics on Images for Contextual Factors Analysis

Contextual factors in which learning occurs are crucial aspects that learning analytics and related disciplines aim to understand for optimizing learning and the environments in which learning occurs. In foreign vocabulary development, taking the notes or memos of learning contexts along with other factors, play an essential role in quick memorization and reflection. However, conventional tools fail to automate the learning contexts generation process as learners still need to take memos or e-notes to describe their vocabulary learning contexts. This paper presents the Image Understanding Project (hereafter IUEcosystem) that could produce smartly-generated learning contexts primarily in a learner’s target languages. The IUEcosystem uses visual content analysis of lifelogging images as the sensor data to produce smartly-generated learning contexts that could be used as an alternative to handwritten memos or electronic notes. The IUEcosystem uses applied artificial intelligence to produce smartly-generated learning contexts. This intelligent learning environment collects a learner’s learning satisfaction and interaction data and, later on, analyzes them to produce time-based notifications for enhancing retention. Furthermore, a new learning design is presented that aims to map a learner’s prior vocabulary knowledge with new learning vocabularies to be learned. This learning design would help learners to review and recall prior knowledge while learning new vocabulary.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning and Retention from Audiovisual Input and Factors Affecting Them

Research has recently highlighted the potential of audiovisual input for incidental vocabulary learning. However, few studies have examined the role that different factors play in incidental vocabulary learning and retention from viewing. This study aims to examine incidental vocabulary learning and retention through viewing a full-length captioned episode of an English TV program and investigate whether this learning and retention are affected by the learner-related variable of prior vocabulary knowledge and the item-related variables of frequency of occurrence, contextual clues, lexicalization, word relevance, and visual imagery. A pretest posttest-between-participant design was adopted. Data were collected from 84 Iranian EFL students who were assigned to three pairs of experimental and control groups, receiving one of the following conditions: (a) immediate, (b) 1-week delayed, or (c) 3-month delayed posttests. The experimental groups were exposed to the audiovisual input while the control groups were not. The results demonstrated that incidental vocabulary learning and retention occurred at the level of form recognition and meaning recall. Moreover, it was revealed that learning and retention were affected by frequency of occurrence, contextual clues, lexicalization, visual imagery, and prior vocabulary knowledge, with the effects of the latter three possibly persisting after 3 months.

Vocabulary Learning Through Viewing Captioned or Subtitled Videos and the Role of Learner- and Word-Related Factors

This study investigates incidental vocabulary learning through captioned or subtitled videos and examines whether and how different learner- (prior vocabulary knowledge) and word-related factors (i.e., frequency of occurrence, cognateness, and imagery) influence learning gains from watching videos. Low-intermediate Dutch-speaking learners of French (N=86) took part in a four week intervention program. They were assigned to a subtitles group, a captions group, or a control group (who only took the tests). Vocabulary learning was measured by means of form and meaning recognition, as well as meaning recall tests. Results revealed that participants learned approximately 15% of the vocabulary they could have learned. Both treatment groups outperformed the control group in the meaning recognition test, but only the captions group outperformed the control group in the meaning recall test. Learning gains were mediated by cognateness with significantly higher odds to recall and recognize a cognate on the posttest than a noncognate. Frequency of occurrence and prior vocabulary knowledge had a positive effect on L2 learners’ ability to recall and recognize the meaning of the target words. A positive relationship was also found between target words that were visually represented in the video and learners’ meaning recall scores for those words.