Prior Cross-cultural Research Research Articles

Influence of encoding instructions and response bias on cross-cultural differences in specific recognition.

Prior cross-cultural research has reported cultural variations in memory. One study revealed that Americans remembered images with more perceptual detail than East Asians (Millar et al. in Cult Brain 1(2-4):138-157, 2013). However, in a later study, this expected pattern was not replicated, possibly due to differences in encoding instructions (Paige et al. in Cortex 91:250-261, 2017). The present study sought to examine when cultural variation in memory-related decisions occur and the role of instructions. American and East Asian participants viewed images of objects while making a Purchase decision or an Approach decision and later completed a surprise recognition test. Results revealed Americans had higher hit rates for specific memory, regardless of instruction type, and a less stringent response criterion relative to East Asians. Additionally, a pattern emerged where the Approach decision enhanced hit rates for specific memory relative to the Purchase decision only when administered first; this pattern did not differ across cultures. Results suggest encoding instructions do not magnify cross-cultural differences in memory. Ultimately, cross-cultural differences in response bias, rather than memory sensitivity per se, may account for findings of cultural differences in memory specificity.

Personal best (PB) goal structure, individual PB goals, engagement, and achievement: A study of Chinese- and English-speaking background students in Australian schools.

Prior cross-cultural research with students in different national contexts (Australia and China) has shown consistency in the extent to which individual personal best (PB) goals are associated with engagement at school. This study extends this work to a multicultural context, assessing perceived PB goal structure in school and individual PB goals among Chinese- and English-speaking background Australian high school students attending the same schools. A sample of 450 students (N=225 Chinese-speaking background Australian students; N=225 matched English-speaking background Australian students) from 20 schools. We conducted multigroup path modelling to examine the following process model: Perceived PB goal structure in school→individual PB goals→school engagement→academic achievement. Findings showed that for both groups, perceived PB goal structure in school is associated with an individual's PB goals (and engagement), individual PB goals are associated with engagement, and engagement is associated with achievement. The indirect effects of perceived PB goal structure in school to achievement (via individual PB goals and engagement) and individual PB goals to achievement (via engagement) were also significant. Notably, there was no significant difference in parameters between Chinese- and English-speaking background students, suggesting generality of the effects of perceived PB goal structure in school and individual PB goals in the engagement and achievement process. Findings hold implications for educators teaching to culturally diverse classrooms and seeking to optimize students' academic growth within these contexts.

Determinants of Customer Complaint Behavior in a Restaurant Context: The Role of Culture, Price Level, and Customer Loyalty

Prior cross-cultural research on customer complaint behavior has shown that Asian customers–collectivists (vs. Western customers–individualists) are less likely to engage in voice complaint but more inclined to choose nonconfrontational responses such as switching and negative word-of-mouth. Yet, we suggest that this relationship may not hold true when taking into account customer loyalty, price level, and power distance as cultural value. To that end, we conducted an experiment to examine the joint effects of culture, customer loyalty, and restaurant price level on customer complaint behaviors. Our results indicate that Asian customers might indeed be vocal public complainers when there is no deep commitment to a restaurant and when paying a high price for the service. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.

Effects of Self-Construal Differences on Cognitive Dissonance Examined by Priming the Independent and Interdependent Self

Prior cross-cultural research on dissonance has relied on cultural stereotypes in assuming that individuals from Western cultures are individualistic and have independent self-construals whereas individuals from Asian cultures are collectivistic and have interdependent self-construals. The current research made use of priming to avoid relying on cultural stereotypes and examined how having an independent or interdependent self-construal accounted for differences in dissonance experienced. A total of 120 participants who were Singapore citizens or permanent residents were randomly assigned to one of four conditions. Participants received either an independent or interdependent prime, and rated and ranked CDs before and after they made a choice between closely valued alternatives either for oneself or a close other. Results indicated that independently primed participants demonstrated significant dissonance when they made choices for themselves and close others whereas interdependently primed participants demonstrated significant dissonance when they made choices for close others but not for themselves. The study’s findings suggest that having either self-construal accounted for differences in dissonance experienced.

Trust, Culture, and Cooperation: A Social Dilemma Analysis of Pro-Environmental Behaviors

Social dilemmas require a choice between cooperation, or sacrificing for the greater good, and self-interest. One commonly studied social dilemma is environmental conservation. Previous work suggests that trust predicts cooperation in the form of environmental protection. We contend that this view ignores cultural factors. Building on prior cross-cultural research, we predict an interaction between strength of social ties and trust on cooperation. Findings from General Social Survey data indicate that low trust levels found in the U.S. South (a collectivist culture) renders trust ineffective at promoting environmental protection. However, trust predicts cooperation in nonsouthern regions (which are more individualist), where trust levels are higher.

The Effect of National Culture, Acculturation, and Education on Accounting Judgments: A Comparative Study of Australian and Chinese Culture

ABSTRACT We examine the influence of national culture on the judgments of Australian and Chinese tertiary accounting students when they are interpreting selected International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) that contain uncertainty expressions. To extend prior cross-cultural research, we also examine whether cultural values of individuals can change because of acculturation and accounting education, and measure their potential impact on accounting judgment. The results provide strong support for the notion that Chinese accounting students are more conservative than Australian accounting students in assigning probabilities to in-context uncertainty expressions contained in IFRSs. A unique finding of this study is that the cultural values of individuals can change because of acculturation and accounting education, and this could potentially improve the comparability of financial reports by moderating differences in the interpretation of accounting standards caused by cultural differences between accountants. Data Availability: The complete version of the research instrument is available from the second author.

The effects of ethnic culture and organizational culture on judgments of accountants

This study extends prior cross-cultural research by examining the effects of ethnic culture and organizational culture (Big 4 and non-Big 4 accounting firm affiliations) on the judgments of accountants in Fiji. The study also examines how interaction between ethnic culture and organizational culture influences the judgments of accountants. It examines the extent and the cause of differences between the judgments of Ethnic Fijian and Indo-Fijian accountants when interpreting and applying selected International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs). Consistent with their ethnic cultural values, the results show that Indo-Fijian accountants are generally more conservative in their judgments than their Ethnic Fijian counterparts. This study provides empirical evidence to support the view that both ethnic culture and organizational culture have a significant effect on the manner in which accountants within a country interpret uncertainty expressions contained in the IFRSs. The results also show that organizational culture has a greater effect on the judgments of accountants than ethnic culture. The results of this study provide important insights into the factors affecting the judgments of accountants within a country and raise interesting theoretical issues.

Aspirations and wellbeing in Romanian and US undergraduates

Updating cross-cultural research of the past decade on the relationship between life aspirations and wellbeing, we compared Romanian (N=69) and US (N=64) undergraduates on the contribution of the importance and likelihood of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations to psychological maladjustment and life satisfaction, and on the qualitative meaning they assign to financial success. Similarly to prior studies, we found that extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations tended to be either negatively or positively correlated with life satisfaction, respectively; however, wealth predicted life satisfaction for Romanian students. Unlike previous research, we found generally negative relationships between intrinsic aspirations and psychological maladjustment. Although there were no differences between Romanian and US undergraduates on extrinsic and intrinsic orientation, on the overall importance of attaining aspirations, or on specific extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations, Romanian students expressed weaker expectations of fulfilling intrinsic aspirations than did US students. Finally, the groups produced similar rankings of aspirations and assigned similar meaning to financial success. The results favored a social cognitive rather than a self-determination model of psychological wellbeing in that expectations for attaining aspirations were more often predictive of life satisfaction than were their content. We interpret these findings and their convergence and departure from earlier research in terms of political economic, demographic, and cultural factors. We encourage future cross-cultural investigations of the social construction of aspirations, subsidiation of seemingly contradictory aspirations to each other, and cognitive and ecological mediation of the complex relationship of aspirations to psychological functioning.

Police-Civilian Interaction, Compliance, Accommodation, and Trust in an Intergroup Context: International Data

Prior cross-cultural research has produced models of police-civilian interaction that highlight the effect of officers’ communication accommodation and reported trust in police on attitudinal outcomes. The present study, conducted in Korea, Japan, Guam, and Canada and involving 684 university students, continued this program of research by testing a theoretical model exploring the influence of perceived police officer communication accommodation and reported trust in police on attitudes about compliance with police requests. Findings indicated that across study locations perceived police officer communication accommodation predicted trust in police which, in turn, predicted attitudes about compliance with police requests.

Getting What You Want: The Role of Culture in Predicting the Effectiveness of Informational and Relational Persuasive Strategies in Conflict Resolution

Theory on culture and influence in negotiation predicts cultural differences along the lines of informational versus relational persuasion. We review empirical findings that do not offer consistent support for the existing theory. We then uncover a refined four-factor model of persuasion in cross-cultural negotiations. We find that U.S. negotiators endorse interests-based persuasion whereas Japanese negotiators endorse rational persuasion, both of which are forms of informational persuasion. We also find that U.S. negotiators endorse ingratiation whereas Japanese negotiators endorse sanction-based persuasion, both of which are forms of relational persuasion. Consistent with prior cross-cultural research, we also find that the use of culturally-normative strategies assists negotiators in resolving a dispute simulation.

A Cross-Cultural, Multi-Dimensional, Nonlinear Examination of Managerial Skills and Effectiveness1

Prior studies in United States organizations have suggested that appropriate development of managerial skills can improve managerial effectiveness, thus saving time and other resources. Little prior cross-cultural research has been done, however, on managerial skills and effectiveness. In addition, models depicting linear combinations of skills have dominated the available research on managerial effectiveness. In contrast, this research investigates in each culture whether a linear or nonlinear model better depicts the relationship between managerial skills and effectiveness. Comparisons of the best predicting models across the three cultures are examined and their implications for managerial development are explored.

The Experience of Culture in Multicultural Groups

Research on multicultural groups has typically extended monocultural group research rather than building on prior cross-cultural research. This article brings together the literature on cross-cultural and multicultural groups to look at the experience of Russian-American collaboration. In this exploratory study, American (n = 17) and Russian (n = 18) informants described their experiences in on-going, business-related small groups. Qualitative and descriptive analysis suggested that cultural differences did impede collaboration, although mutual benefits to heterogeneous groups were also identified. The strongest cultural factor appeared to be the influence of external stakeholders on the group. These findings suggest that future research on multicultural groups needs to use a more complex approach to combine the findings of several bodies of literature.

Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Motivations of Verbal Communication: Review, Critique, and a Theoretical Framework

There has been an immense amount and variety of scholarship on the topic of motivation to communicate verbally (e.g., communication apprehension, assertive-ness). The work in the area of communication motivation has been biased by the individualist assumption, explicit or implicit, that communication approach is more desirable than communication “avoidance.” The author agrees that extreme forms of communication “avoidance” and lack of verbal assertiveness can be a handicap in any culture. However, she is critical of the ethnocentric preoccupation with the Western view of the self, which sees communication “avoidance” solely as a “deficiency.” The purposes of this review are (a) to synthesize and evaluate critically prior cross-cultural research on verbal communication motivation, (b) to examine the philosophical/cultural basis of that research, and (c) to propose a theoretical framework for studying communication motivation from a derived etic perspective. Throughout, limitations in current knowledge are noted and avenues for future research are proposed. This review also provides practical suggestions for coping with the different degrees of communication motivation within various interaction contexts (classrooms, organizations, and counseling).