Principles Of Sustainable Use Research Articles

Principles for evaluating the quality and sustainability of social housing architecture projects

This article critically examines the principles for assessing the quality and sustainability of social housing architecture projects, using the Mucajá Housing Complex, located in Macapá, Amapá, as a case study. Through a qualitative research methodology, including document, design, bibliographic, and photographic analysis, the physical and environmental aspects of the housing complex will be evaluated. The article identifies how the principles of flexibility, functionality, accessibility, and the sustainable use of natural resources were incorporated into the Mucajá project, analyzing its ability to meet the present and future needs of the residents, as well as its contribution to environmental preservation. The results indicate that the Mucajá Housing Complex does not satisfactorily meet most of the Principles of Sustainability and Quality in Housing Project Design. It highlights the complete absence of verifiers that meet the Principle of Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and the Principle of Flexibility, as well as the high inaccessibility of the Complex. This demonstrates that the housing complex is disconnected from most sustainability indicators.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TARGET DESIGNATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS

This article examines the problem of changing the designated purpose of agricultural land in the context of a modern market economy. The author draws attention to the priority of agricultural land use established by law and the importance of efficient use of these resources for the development of other sectors of the economy and in accordance with the needs of the population. The study examines the factors that influence the decision to change the designated purpose of land and discusses the possible consequences of such changes for agricultural production and environmental sustainability. The subject of this research is an analysis of the problem of changing the designated purpose of agricultural land in the current conditions of a market economy. The research methodology includes an analysis of current legislation, a study of the practice of applying its provisions, as well as a review of current research and statistics in the field of agriculture and land relations. The purpose of the article is to reveal the importance of the priority of agricultural land use and the need for efficient use of these resources in a market economy. The study shows that changing the designated purpose of agricultural land can have a significant impact on the economy, environment and social sphere. It is shown that, despite the need for other uses of some land plots, the priority of agricultural land use is a key factor in ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development. Based on the analysis of research, the author concludes that it is necessary to implement comprehensive measures for the conservation and rational use of agricultural land. The proposed strategies include the development of effective legislation, promotion of alternative forms of agricultural production, such as organic agriculture, as well as control over compliance with land legislation and the introduction of tools for monitoring changes in land designation. The article examines the list of principles of land management, including the principles of sustainable use, rational use, environmental safety and others. The author emphasises the importance of taking these principles into account when making decisions on planning and use of agricultural land in order to ensure sustainable development of the agricultural sector and preservation of the environment. The study found that economic, environmental and social aspects are important among the principles that influence changes in the designated purpose of agricultural land. Economic principles include the value of land, its efficient use and market competitiveness. Environmental principles focus on the preservation of soil, water resources and biodiversity. Social principles take into account the interests of the local population, ensuring food security and even development of territories. The conclusion of the study emphasises the need to take these principles into account when developing strategies for land use, sustainable agricultural development and the conservation of natural resources. In addition, it is important to develop land management mechanisms based on the principles of economic efficiency, environmental sustainability and social responsibility. Such an approach states the need for a balanced approach to changing the designated purpose of land, taking into account the interests of the agricultural sector, the needs of the population and environmental requirements. This approach will help to ensure sustainable development of the agricultural sector and efficient use of land resources in the current economic and environmental challenges.

Assessment of the sustainable use of chemicals on a level playing field.

Misleading conclusions can result from applying tools beyond the purposes for which they were designed. A range of chemical assessment systems was compared against a set of principles germane to the sustainable use of chemicals relevant to the whole societal life cycles of finished products. These principles of sustainable use included: wider dimensions of sustainability, a foundation in science, consideration of life-cycle risk rather than simply intrinsic chemical properties, contributions to meeting human needs, open access, and peer review. A transparent basis in science is important for deriving objective, comparable, and replicable sustainability-based findings across materials and applications, and for guiding innovation. Few assessment systems currently identify how use of substances contributes to meeting human needs, a vital albeit often overlooked aspect of sustainable development, with most based largely on potential hazard without addressing wider life-cycle exposure and risk assessment. Qualitatively differing substances were illustratively assessed against the sustainability principles and life-cycle context of the Additive Sustainability Footprint (ASF), aspects of this analysis highlighting how differing material sourcing, manufacturing, and management in-use and at end-of-life can lead to widely divergent sustainability assessments. These illustrative ASF assessments also demonstrate that material use challenges, assessed on a systemic basis, are common across materials, with no defensible automatic assumption that there are inherently "good" or "bad" materials; differing stewardship across whole product life cycles substantially influences sustainability credentials for all materials. It is therefore important that the sustainability performance of all materials is assessed on an objective "level playing field," which also highlights "hot spots" for sustainable innovation from supply-chain management through manufacturing, substance selection by material compounders, maintenance inputs in product use, and beyond product end-of-life. Chemical regulation must evolve to include and embed wider sustainability principles into operational practice and become applicable and enforced across increasingly global value chains. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:1131-1146. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Renaturyzacja rzek szansą dla ochrony populacji brzegówki Riparia riparia w Polsce

The regulation and reconstruction of rivers and their valleys, apart from drastic hydrological changes, often lead to the change or disappearance of the habitats of valuable plant and animal species. Particularly vulnerable to the loss of breeding sites are species directly associated with precipitous banks and river slopes, which are formed as a result of erosive and landslide processes. Intensive hydrotechnical treatments, such as straightening of the channels or elimination of irregularities of the river banks, resulted in the inhibition of the desirable natural river processes. Bird species native to Poland that require the above nesting conditions, include: sand martin Riparia riparia, kingfisher Alcedo atthis and bee-eater Merops apiaster. More and more actions are taken to restore rivers to a near-natural state. The aim of restoration is not only to increase retention capacity, protect against floods, social and economic benefits, but also to improve the overall functioning of river ecosystems and preserve biodiversity within their valleys. Renaturation includes activities such as the creation of exposed slopes that mimic erosive undercuts, the removal of bank reinforcements or the maintenance of bank gaps, which promote their occupation by the aforementioned bird species. In addition to predation, the loss of suitable breeding sites is the greatest threat to the sand martin population, such as the American mink Neovison vison, the fox Vulpes vulpes and the locally raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides. A regulated river, where the implemented hydrotechnical measures disrupt the functioning of natural river processes, also causes losses in bird broods due to flash floods that destroy many nests together with eggs or nestlings. Sand martins in many places have stopped using riverbeds as breeding places, occupying anthropogenic habitats which, however, have certain limitations and threats. Renaturation is therefore an important measure to be taken in places where past regulations have caused the greatest damage to the environment. The development of anthropogenic areas should be supported in accordance with the principles of sustainable use of natural resources.

CIRCULAR ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURAL SECTOR: POINTS OF CONTACT AND PROSPECTS OF SYMBIOSIS

The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that in the modern agricultural sector in general the development of economic relations is carried out on a linear principle across countries, the motto of which is the triad “get-recycle-utilize”. However, in modern conditions, the most relevant is the organization of economic relations in the agricultural sector based on the principle of sustainable use of all components of renewable resources, in this regard, innovative business models are needed that determine how to process what is currently considered waste.
 The problem of the study lies in the fact that during the transition of agricultural enterprises to relationships within a circular economy, it is necessary to take into account certain factors that determine both success and risk. This should include technical, logistical, economic, financial and marketing, organizational and spatial, institutional and legal, environmental, social and cultural factors. At the same time, the specific factors for the agricultural sector are innovative conversion technologies, flexible internal and external logistics, joint investments in R&D, price competitiveness, etc.
 The purpose of the study is to consider the points of contact and prospects for the symbiosis of the circular economy and the agricultural sector.
 In the analysis of the material, comparative research methods were used, the consideration of the research topic was carried out on the basis of an analysis of sources and publications covering the main conceptual foundations of the development of the circular economy and the agro-industrial complex.
 The authors concluded that while several success factors are also crucial for closed-loop business models in general, some of them are very specific to those evaluating agricultural waste and by-products.

Лесокультурное производство – основа непрерывности лесопользования

Currently, the principle of sustainable use of forests is a fundamental direction in the management of natural resources. Solving the problems of sustainable development of forestry in the European North involves ensuring the quality reproduction of forest resources. The main parts of silvicultural production are procurement and preparation of seeds; growing planting stock, creation of new stands and agricultural tending of them. The goal of the federal project “Forest Conservation” is to ensure the balance of forest felling and reproduction in the ratio of 100 % by 2024. The emphasis is on the use of ball-rooted planting stock for artificial reforestation. Information gap on the long-term prospects of its use, as well as the lack of data on the results of long-term observations of growth and condition of forest crops created by seedlings with a lump of substrate, and comparison of such seedlings with traditional planting stock, especially in northern conditions, update the topic of research. The research purpose is to identify conditions for obtaining high-quality planting stock, as well as to assess the possibility of successful restoration of pine on felling sites in the north of the European part of Russia by creating forest crops using regional intensive technologies, based on the results of long-term technologies. The main objects of observations are nurseries of the region, the procedures used in them and the experimental planting of pine trees in the Kargopol and Arkhangelsk forestries in 2000–2001. Preservation, diameter, height, and volume were determined in dynamics in the areas of crops created from various types of planting stock (seedlings, plantlet, ball-rooted planting stock). The counts were carried out with several repetitions and dividing plants into healthy, weak and dry. Wood flaws of pine trunks were also noted and natural regeneration was recorded. Based on the research materials, the possibility of successful restoration of pine trees on felling sites in the north of the European part of Russia is shown using regional intensive technologies for the production of various planting stock and the creation of forest crops. This will reduce the period of transfer of young trees to natural conditions and increase the productivity of plantations. Comparison of average diameters and heights for all accounting periods indicates the influence of the type of planting stock and density of planting on the growth and development of trees. During the observation period, plantlets lead in all respects. Their height and diameter is 20–44 % higher than that of yearling seedlings, and in terms of stem volume the difference with other types of planting stock reaches 1.9–2.9 times.

Use of pesticides in cultivated plants production

This chapter examines the basic problems related to use of pesticides in plant production. The short history of their production and application, not only in our country, but in the whole world as well, is briefly given. It is particularly pointed at the damages caused by different harmful organisms to the plant production and at the role of pesticides in plant production and plant products. Pesticides are significant means of plant protection and their benefits are reflected in the following indicators: preventing the yield loss of cultivated plants from the attack of the pathogens, insects and weed plants, suppression of vectors of infectious pathogens and pathogens, improving the production quality and pesticide application in the sector of the utility hygiene. During the production and pesticide application, non-target organisms are exposed and pesticides reach non-target areas. Since pesticides are mostly used on agricultural areas which are mainly in rural regions, risks of pesticides application are significantly important in those regions. Risks can be reflected on the direct impact of pesticides on humans, food contamination, surface and underground water and on environment and non-target organisms. Risks of pesticides in republic of Srpska are mainly caused by their application. In order to reduce the negative consequences of pesticide application on rural areas in Republic of Srpska, the basic attention should be reduced to directing the plant protection according to the principles of the integral plant protection and pesticide application should be complied with the principles of sustainable use of pesticides. Organizing the work and activities in the field of protection of the plant health, according to the principles of integral plant protection and sustainable use of pesticides, it is necessary to systematically organize by the competent institution, not only legislative but also in terms of supervision and inspections, and to educate the agricultural advisers and agricultural producers. Special attention must be paid to prevent the contamination underground water, pesticides drifting during their application, bees poisoning and other non-target organisms and disposal of non-used pesticides and their storage.In the world, but in our country as well, the intensive pesticide application has been worrying for a long time because of its influence on the human health (acute and chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, damages of the nerve and immune system), influence on the environment (contamination of water, soil and food by toxic residues) and effects on biodiversity. Therefore, it will be necessary to develop completely new strategies of plant protection, discover and synthetize new selective and ecologically acceptable pesticides and to master techniques and knowledge for their more accurate application. Certainly, in newly created conditions – reduction of active substance number of pesticides, lack of new solutions for many contemporary phenomena of disease causers, harmful insects and weed plants, and especially for wide occurrence of resistance to many pesticides, it will demand education of the producers, particularly in the choice and precise pesticide application. In this knowledge transfer, particular place will belong to experts in agricultural-expert services, because they will be demanded the permanent education and expert information about all innovations in this dynamic scientific field.

Determining the value of standing timber for harvest planning optimization

Abstract Forest managers conducting sustainable forest management are guided by the principles of sustainable use of natural resources, which involve the need for long and short-term planning in organizational units of the State Forests. Plans often differ from reality by the time individual treatments and cuts are to be performed. For economic reasons, it is important to optimize harvest planning, not only focusing on the volume of timber to be harvested, but also the price differences of individual tree species and sort types of wood. The purpose of this study was to present methods evaluating standing timber and to assess their usefulness in optimizing the harvest volume using linear programming. Stands designated to be cut were evaluated using transaction value methods, i.e. “the stumpage value method” M1, the “consumption value” method M2, as well as the net present value (NPV) method M3. The research material was obtained from the State Forests Information System (SILP) for the Marcule Forest District covering the years 2014–2018. The stand values were determined at the beginning and end of the 10-year planning period. We observed that the stand value (standing timber) differed significantly between method M2 as compared to method M1. the value of stands determined by method M3, on the other hand, decreased as the discount rate increased. In the process of optimizing the selection of stands for felling, economic criteria should also be taken into account and this is a direct measure of obtainable standing timber in terms of the cutting possibility in the given planning period. In stands where one species dominates, a simplified method of determining the value (M1) can be used, whereas in stands with significant species diversity, method M2 provides a significantly more accurate value for the cutting timber. However, if harvest volume optimization using linear programming methods is to take longer time periods into account, e.g. 30 years (three 10-year economic planning periods), the most reasonable method for determining the value of stands is the net present value method M3.

Spotty Data: Managing International Leopard (Panthera pardus) Trophy Hunting Quotas Amidst Uncertainty

Abstract Leopard (Panthera pardus) conservation has a strong international dimension. Hunting trophy export quotas established for African range states under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) are a case in point. We test these quotas, and the methods for their establishment, against the benchmark of the general principles of precaution, sustainable use and adaptive management. The various national approaches and the CITES regime condoning them largely fail this test. For decades, CITES bodies have endorsed apparently arbitrary quotas lacking robust scientific bases, without regular adjustment. Thus, the quotas have been inadequately performing their assigned function within the Convention’s framework. The way in which the CITES leopard quota regime has been operating is fundamentally at odds with the principles of sustainable use, precaution and adaptive management. To remedy this, we offer recommendations on how to embed a science-based, sustainable, precautionary and adaptive approach to quota-setting within the CITES system.

International trade in endangered species: the challenges and successes of the 17th conference of parties to the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES)

International trade in endangered species: the challenges and successes of the 17th conference of parties to the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES)

Rasgos oceanográficos en el Golfo Dulce, Pacífico de Costa Rica: una revisión para la toma de decisiones en conservación marina

Se indagó, de septiembre del 2005 a noviembre del 2007, las propiedades oceanográficas físicas, químicas y biológicas (zooplancton) más relevantes del Golfo Dulce, Pacífico Sur de Costa Rica, y las tipologías meteorológicas de la zona, con el objetivo de analizarlas y hacerlas disponibles como referencia en el establecimiento de actividades adecuadas para su conservación, dado que es un ecosistema acuático único en Costa Rica. El patrón de circulación de las aguas en el Golfo Dulce es el típico de estuarios tipo fiordo, con una estratificación de flujo en la columna de agua. Las corrientes marinas superficiales alcanzaron velocidades cercanas a los 18cm/s en la región de entrada al Golfo, que disminuyeron al ampliarse el área del golfo donde las velocidades llegaron a alcanzar poco más de 5cm/s en el extremo noroeste, Rincón. Predominó el flujo superficial de este-oeste, mientras que en la zona de Puerto Jiménez la velocidad fue moderada de 5.4cm/s con dirección sur. Se detectaron velocidades mayores cercanas al umbral de la entrada del golfo (17.8cm/s) y en el fondo el ámbito fue de 2.0cm/s a 4.8cm/s. Se establecieron cinco sitios de muestreo denominados GD1, GD2, GD3, GD4 y GD5, que se visitaron en cinco ocasiones, excepto en GD5 que se visitó solo una vez. No se detectó la ausencia de oxígeno disuelto en las aguas profundas del Golfo (70m a los 140m), aunque las concentraciones fueron bajas (0.25mg/L a 1.10mg/L). La distribución de las concentraciones de los nutrimentos reflejó los patrones usuales para sistemas estuarinos a nivel horizontal, y a nivel vertical las concentraciones de fosfato y silicato fueron mayores al descender en la columna de agua, tanto en la estación lluviosa como en la seca. La descomposición de la materia orgánica fue evidente puesto que las concentraciones de nitrato fueron incrementándose en las aguas profundas. De los datos de concentración de nutrimentos, se deduce que el Golfo Dulce puede ser considerado como un cuerpo de agua que se mantiene en un estado de muy buena calidad ambiental. El grupo zooplánctico dominante fue el de los copédodos (44%-83.6%). Los vientos oeste ecuatoriales se detectaron en junio y fueron más intensos entre septiembre y octubre, lo que correspondió con promedios altos de altura de las olas. A su vez, los vientos alisios de diciembre a abril disminuyeron la energía del oleaje que entra al golfo y por lo tanto la altura promedio de las olas. El ciclo anual de la precipitación fue un patrón bimodal típico del Pacífico de América Central, con máximos en mayo y octubre, con la interrupción debida al veranillo o canícula, y un mínimo de precipitación ocurrió en febrero. Golfo Dulce es un ambiente único en todo el Pacífico Este Tropical, y aunque parezca mostrar condiciones ambientales saludables, está amenazado por muchas actividades humanas; ante todo urge el establecimiento de políticas de ordenamiento y planificación de las mismas, para proteger el ecosistema bajo los principios de uso sostenible.

Benefits arising from sustainable use of North America’s fishery resources: economic and conservation impacts of recreational angling

Fish are one of North America’s most valuable renewable resources. Although recreational anglers harvest a portion of their catch, modern recreational fisheries are based on the principle of sustainable use, and most are highly regulated using the best available science, fisheries data and risk assessments. Recent surveys indicate that approximately 10–20% of the North American population participates in angling, and the resulting economic impact is greater than that from commercial fishing and aquaculture; it even exceeds the combined annual revenue from several of the top major league sports in North America. The relationship between man and certain fish species that arises through activities such as recreational angling is an important driver of the science on aquatic species and their ecosystems. There are many other ways that recreational anglers contribute to conservation, with benefits for sportfish and non-sportfish species alike, as well as for North America’s aquatic ecosystems.

Geographical Research: Retrospect and Prospect

<i>Geographical Research</i>: Retrospect and Prospect

IS RAMSAR HOME YET? A Critique of South Korean Laws in Light of the Continuing Coastal Wetlands Reclamation

One of the ways the clash between economic development and environmental protection in South Korea is manifested is in the country’s policies on coastal land use and reclamation. Even though coastal wetlands are legally considered public property, they have been continuously reclaimed and privatized by the state and its close corporate entities under the Public Waters Reclamation Act of 1962. Since its accession to the Ramsar Convention (the “Convention”), Korea has been curtailing the privatization of public lands. The country has instituted domestic measures to implement the provisions of the Convention and to follow the principle of sustainable use of wetlands. Coastal law and policy have also gained political prominence since Korea hosted the Tenth Ramsar Conference in 2008. Efforts to uphold the country’s obligations under the Convention and to limit large-scale coastal reclamation projects, however, have not been effective. Over 1,000 square kilometers of coastal wetlands, or thirty percent of the remaining wetlands, are currently being developed. In addition, numerous special development laws, providing loopholes for developers to circumvent limits on land reclamation projects, have been passed. This article reviews South Korea’s legal and institutional landscape and examines the question of whether the Ramsar Convention has been genuinely internalized by the legal system. Domestic laws are insufficient in upholding the principles of the Convention, and government administrators are not committed to upholding them. This article ultimately concludes that Korean law needs to adopt and internalize certain outside norms in order to effectively carry out Korea’s obligations under the Ramsar Convention.

Freshwater fishes, their biodiversity, habitats and fisheries in the Nordic countries

Finland, Norway and Sweden have in total about 126500 lakes larger than four hectares. In Finland and Sweden, approximately 10% of the surface area is freshwater; whereas in Norway, it is about 6%. Altogether 56 fish species are reproducing in the Nordic freshwaters, including four lamprey species. Due to geographical differences, the freshwater fish fauna differs considerably in the northern and southern parts; but species richness increases also from west to east. The proportion of recreational fishermen in Norway, Finland and Sweden was about 50%, 40% and 27 %, respectively, in 2004. Professional freshwater fishing is declining, but is still important in some lakes in Finland and Sweden. In all three countries, fishing rights belong to the water or land owner, with some exceptions. Water quality has improved in recent decades due to decreased nutrient loads from point sources, but the limitation of scattered nutrient loads has been less successful. This development can also be seen in the responses of fish communities. Some 30–40 years ago, waters close to many cities or industrial plants were heavily polluted and had only limited recreational or fisheries value. Recently, they are often inhabited by healthy fish populations. On the other hand, there are many highly eutrophic lakes in agricultural areas of southern and western Finland and Sweden that regularly suffer from algal blooms and high biomasses of cyprinid fish. The increasing acidification problem of oligotrophic lakes was related to long distance air pollution in recent years, but the situation has now improved. Lake regulation impacts the littoral ecosystems in hundreds of lakes and causes considerable negative impacts on feeding and reproduction areas for fish. The main measure used for compensating the damaged fish numbers has been stocking. Many large rivers have been modified for hydropower production. Most activities of fish habitat restoration are directed at rivers. Fisheries management includes several tools: regulations on use and structure of fishing gear, temporal and regional fishing restrictions, the size limits of target fish, the limitations of fishing efficiency, and amount of catch. The general goal is to meet the principles of sustainable use of natural resources.

User perceptions of conservation and participatory management of iGxalingenwa forest, South Africa

New forest policies in South Africa seek to reconcile conservation and development objectives by devolving some responsibility for forest management from the state to local communities. Community participation in forest management aims to protect forest-based subsistence livelihoods by incorporating the interests of resource users, while simultaneously diffusing threats to biodiversity by managing resource use. To date, participatory forest management (PFM) has had mixed success in South Africa because the transfer of rights to users has not accompanied changes in policy. A questionnaire survey of 60 households (43%) revealed the attitudes of users toward current management and conservation options for iGxalingenwa forest. Users chose participatory forest management (52%) over community (25%) or state-dominated forest management (2%) structures. User choice was motivated by the desire to secure rights of access to, and ensure equitable benefit from, a dwindling resource base, rather than the conservation of these resources to sustain future yields. Users were unwilling to reduce resource use and compromise usufruct rights to achieve conservation goals, even to improve the availability of the resource stock. Current user needs compromise biodiversity conservation goals, and users regard state conservation practices as protectionist and obstructing their rights of access to resources. While the National Forests Act of 1998 seeks to conserve resources by limiting access to them and is based on principles of sustainable use, it is nevertheless perceived to offer few incentives to users to participate in forest management and conservation. Ideally, an institutional and legal framework that allocates user rights and managerial responsibilities to households is required, but clearly suitable alternatives to forest products are also vital for successful management. Greater trust between the provincial parks authority and users is needed, but is complicated by weak traditional leadership and poor community representation. Ultimately, users preferred PFM because, while recognizing that harvest rates are unsustainable, user dependence upon forest resources and weak traditional leadership means they can protect usufruct rights only by participation. Changes to any of these factors may create demands for a new management system. PFM allows the greatest flexibility for responding to changes in demands as well as the environment.

Survival, growth, and growth allocation of planted Scots pine trees after different levels of biomass removal in clear-felling

A great concern in forestry today is whether whole-tree harvesting influences site productivity and whether it is consistent with the principle of sustainable use of forest resources. To evaluate this a randomised field experiment established 24 years ago in Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) in southern Sweden was used. Treatments were conventional stem harvest (CH), whole-tree harvest (WTH), and branch and stem harvest (BSH). Seedling survival was unaffected by treatments. The total basal area over bark at breast height (1.3 m, m 2 ha −1) was significantly reduced following WTH from the 15th year after planting. Sample trees on CH plots produced 20% more wood biomass than WTH and BSH plots, while biomass produced within the crown was unaffected by treatment. Height growth was greater for sample trees on CH plots during the last year of measurement, while basal area and volume under bark were larger from the 12th year onwards when compared with the WTH treatment. BSH showed a decreased basal area growth under bark during the two 4-year-periods, 13–16 and 17–20 years after planting, and a decreased volume growth under bark from year 9 onwards in comparison with CH. Radial growth was increased for CH up to 3 m of the stems during the 9–12-year period and at 3 m during the 13–16-year period in comparison with the other two treatments. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of long-term site productivity and overall silvicultural outcome.

Ecological economics of the Swedish Baltic Empire: An essay on energy and power, 1560–1720

Sweden rose from relative obscurity to become the most powerful nation in northern Europe during the period 1560–1720 based on its prosperous metal industry - silver, copper and steel. The following essay addresses this period of history from an energy perspective and suggests, as others have, that the surplus energy of a nation is its basis for power. Sweden's energy came mainly from its forests which supplied its mines with wood and its metal-works with charcoal. This energy system, including hydropower, animal and man power, is analyzed using one of the thousands of charcoal-burners as a model for the main energy input - charcoal. The principles of sustainable use of Swedish forests are also addressed in an historical perspective.