Principles Of Reciprocity Research Articles

Reconfiguring the "Informal Economy" Divide

main distorting factor in the sociological tradition, according to Mingione (1994: 25), been the use of dichotomy between Gemeinschaft/ Gesellschaft as a pure opposition between a model of traditional society and one of the modern social life. This radical opposition has overshadowed the reality of complex innovative adaptation of social arrangements, where both principles of reciprocity and principles of association have continued to coexist. In another context, this dichotomization of social and, I might add, economic arrangements takes place on other levels as well, beyond traditional and modern and even within the modern. The discussion of and reflects this notion of duality in a way that overlooks the complexity of human existence. This article questions the separation of formal and informal economy in the substantial literature on the subject. Examining state policy in relation to the agricultural and industrial sectors in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, I will show how informal and formal processes are intertwined and suggest that they can be separated only for purposes of analysis. I will point to the pressing need to reconceptualize formal and informal as interconnected, fluid tendencies in the relations of the people and the state in the context of capitalist development. Among the main implications of this analysis is that, whether promoted by the state or by capitalist enterprises, capitalist development is hotly contested; multiple forms of production, coexisting and sometimes articulating, have been integral (even necessary) features of capitalist development

An Economic Theory of GATT

We propose a unified theoretical framework within which to interpret and evaluate the foundational principles of GATT. Working within a general equilibrium trade model, we represent government preferences in a way that is consistent with national income maximization but also allows for the possibility of distributional concerns as emphasized in leading political-economy models. Using this general framework, we establish that GATT's principles of reciprocity and non-discrimination can be viewed as simple rules that assist governments in their effort to implement efficient trade agreements. From this perspective, we argue that preferential agreements undermine GATT's ability to deliver efficient multilateral outcomes. (JEL F02, F13, F15)

Strategic Commitments and the Principle of Reciprocity in Interconnection Pricing

We discuss the effects of strategic commitments and of network size in the process of setting interconnection fees across competing networks. We also discuss the importance of the principles of reciprocity and imputation of interconnection charges on market equilibria. Reciprocity means that both networks charge the same for interconnection. Imputation means that a network charges its customers as much as it charges customers of the other network for the same service. Assuming that each consumer cannot subscribe to more than one network, we begin by analyzing a game of strategic symmetry where the two networks choose all prices simultaneously. Second, we allow a dominant network to set the interconnection fee before the opponent network can set its prices. This results in a price-squeeze on the rival network. Third, we show that the imposition of a reciprocity rule eliminates the strategic power of the first mover. Under reciprocity, one network sets the common interconnection fee at cost, and the equilibrium prices for final services are lower than in the two previous games without reciprocity. Moreover, prices under reciprocity obey the principle of imputation. In the long run, consumers subscribe to one of the two networks. Typically, there is a multiplicity of equilibria, including corner equilibria, where all consumers subscribe to the same network. However, under reciprocity, there are no corner equilibria.

Reciprocity in Staff/Resident Interactions in Nursing Homes

ABSTRACT Social Exchange Theory holds that reciprocity in relationships is essential to well-being. Reciprocity is difficult for dependent elders in nursing homes to manage. A study to identify the extent to which nursing assistants in nursing homes recognized reciprocation needs of residents demonstrated that a variety of caring behaviors were observed and were considered a means to achieving reciprocity; however, opportunities for engaging in them were seldom created. Attitudes were significantly related to race, educational level and time employed in the nursing home, but not related to age, gender or total time worked in nursing homes. Inservice education to help nursing assistants use principles of reciprocity is encouraged.

Intergenerational relations among the Samia of Kenya: culture and experience

Culture in the sense of beliefs or norms for behaviour may be at variance with the actual experience of individuals, as is the case with intergenerational relationships among the Samia of rural Western Kenya. Samia has undergone enormous changes in the 20th century; these changes have created differences in the knowledge and experiences of older and younger generations. While there is consensus across generations about behavioural norms based on principles of seniority, respect and reciprocity, views diverge regarding how well ideals are lived up to in actual behaviour. Young people say that elders often do not understand modern life and they prefer being with other young people; many older people say that the young do not respect their elders, nor do they want to walk or sit and talk with elders. However data reported here indicate that contacts between generations are frequent, providing opportunities for social interaction, skill acquisition, emotional support and reciprocal exchanges. Examples given include patterns of association in daily activities, the nature of intergenerational discourse, and family decision making involving two or more generations. Though not always smooth, relationships between generations are important sources of social interaction and mutual assistance, and frequent contacts provide a sense of generational continuity in a fast-changing world.

EM wave scattering by a dihedral strip grating

The dihedral strip grating is a thick screen which permits control over the strength of reflected and transmitted Floquet harmonics. Controllable is its frequency selectivity too. Plane-wave scattering from an infinite dihedral strip grating is formulated through an indirect mode matching technique based on Green's second theorem. The solution is successfully checked against the principles of energy conservation and reciprocity. The effect of dihedral strip geometry on the characteristic spectral response, at the screen faces, and on the distribution of far-field scatter, is investigated through numerical examples. Corresponding results are given for horizontal, inclined and thick strip gratings.

A confirmation of the double-exponential approximation of the depth distribution function for AES/XPS using reciprocal two-stream methods

The depth distribution function (DDF) for Auger/XPS spectroscopy obtained in the two-stream approximation contains little useful information. This situation may be improved considerably by invoking the principles of reciprocity and solving instead the reciprocal problem. Doing so produces an approximate DDF of the same two-exponential form as the approximate DDF obtained in the transport approximation lending further credence to this result. There are many forms of the two stream method. However, from the literature it is clear that the delta-Eddington version gives the best combination of accuracy and simplicity for the reciprocal problem. Two forms of the delta-Eddington version are compared to the DDF from the transport approximation, leading to the conclusion that the three DDF's which include elastic scattering are remarkably close to one another and substantially different from the DDF used in standard quantitative procedures. Using these forms of the DDF should allow quantitative Auger/XPS spectroscopy to include elastic scattering in a simple yet accurate way.

Noise correlation in multicoil receiver systems.

When two or more rf coils are used to receive NMR signals from the same part of the patient, the overall sensitivity of an image formed from some combination of these signals may be degraded if noise voltages in the coils are correlated. Whereas it is straightforward to calculate correlation caused by noise sources in the coils themselves, there is disagreement about noise correlation when that noise arises from thermally driven currents within the body itself. A general analysis based on the principles of reciprocity, superposition, and energy conservation yields an equation for sample-induced noise correlation in terms of circuit impedances. Furthermore, the analysis yields a very simple expression for the total noise correlation (i.e., noise from patient and coil elements) between the coils. This latter expression is applicable to any two-port receiver coil assembly, including single coils with two modes, such as a birdcage coil, and in general, to any two ports of an n-port receiver system.

Analysis of an electromagnetic induction detector for real-time location of buried objects

Spatial response characteristics of an electromagnetic induction sensor as it passes over a metallic object are investigated using a simple analytical technique. In this low-frequency technique, one replaces a metallic object with equivalent electric and magnetic dipoles and then applies the principles of reciprocity to obtain the induced EMF in a sensor coil. Analysis is carried out for a sensor employing rectangular coils, and the object set is confined to a sphere and a prolate spheroid. The simple approach, which is illustrated with both numerical and experimental data, is found to be adequate to understand the effect on the response characteristics of parameters such as object depth, orientation, aspect ratio, and material properties. >

Light scattering by tilted cylinders: properties of partial wave coefficients

We investigate relations among the partial-wave coefficients that describe scattering by infinite cylinders in terms of the parameters governing this process: the refractive index m, the size parameter x, and the tilting angle ϕ. We present a complete set of relations for nonabsorbing cylinders, and we discuss their physical significance in terms of the principles of reciprocity and energy conservation. In particular, we find that energy conservation for this nonspherical shape leads to additional constraints not present in the case of scattering by spheres.

Piaget's Social Psychology

AbstractPiaget's social psychology is not widely discussed among psychologists, partly because much of it is still contained in untranslated French works. In this article I summarize the main lines of Piaget's social psychology and briefly indicate its relation to current theories in social psychology. Rejecting both Durkheim's sociological holism and Tarde's individualism, Piaget advances a sociological relativism (relationalism) in which all social facts are reducible to social relations and these, in turn, are reducible to rules, values and signs. Piaget's theory of social values takes the form of a social exchange theory characterized in an abstract logical way. Piaget claims social exchange requires normative principles of reciprocity and that individual social development results in such an equilibrium because rationality itself is social and based upon social cooperation. These views, in turn, derive from Piaget's orthogenetic views concerning the course of evolution: development can be characterized as an increase in equilibrium manifested both in individual action and in social interaction.

A Social Exchange Typology of Conjugal Relationships and Conflict Development*

In this article the authors attempt to demonstrate how the principles of social exchange, reciprocity and distributive justice can be used to explain the development and continuation of marital dissatisfaction and conflict. A typology of marital relationships is presented based upon the premise that marriages can be located on a continuum ranging from satisfying and voluntary to conflicted and nonvoluntary. Satisfying relationships are conceptualized as equitable reciprocal exchanges. Socially approved behaviors as well as deviant interpersonal responses which occur are seen as impersnal maneuvers which a spouse might utilize to restore an equitable balance of exchanges once the norm of equity has been violated. The type of strategy employed by a spouse will depend upon the relative power he/she possesses, the type of marriage in which the spouse is involved, and the availability of reinforcements which can be gained from sources external to the relationship. Practical suggestions for assessing the appropriateness of various forms of clinical intervention available to the therapist are discussed in the light of this typology and clinical implications are offered.

Loss as a Theme in Social Policy

Historians and social researchers have viewed social policy in America as primarily concerned with issues of equality. In this article, David K. Cohen argues that an equally important theme—a sense of loss—has gone largely unnoticed. Examining the role of loss in the historical development of social policy for public education,he demonstrates that policies aimed at creating equality have been confounded—and to some extent undermined—by policies aimed at repairing loss. The author contends that in general the sense of loss has led to a vision of community which is based on order and compulsion. He argues, however, that community may be organized on principles of reciprocity, equality, and choice. The author reviews alternative explanations for why the sense of loss has been pervasive and persistent; he offers the view that loss persists and community eludes us because of a particular cultural bias, and he illustrates how this bias continues to affect social policy.

TEST OF RECIPROCITY AND SUPERPOSITION IN TIME DOMAIN INDUCED POLARIZATION MEASUREMENTS*

AbstractThe principles of reciprocity and superposition, which hold in normal resistivity measurements, are sometimes considered to apply also to Induced Polarisation measurements.In this paper, an account is given of experiments designed to test how far such a proposition is justified. The experiments comprise a limited field test and more extensive observations using a tank analogue.Within acceptable limits, both tests showed that these basic theorems are applicable to I.P. potentials provided that these are measured at the same instant after switch off and that identical charging regimes are used.The implications of these findings are discussed.

A Behavioral-Exchange Model for Marital Counseling

An approach to marriage counseling based on the principles of reciprocity and social exchange is described. Behavior modification techniques are utilized to implement this program designed to resolve marital conflict between spouses. Following an educational model throughout the program, spouses are encouraged to negotiate their own reciprocal-exchange contracts with decreasing dependency on the counseloreducator. A case study is presented to illustrate the functionality of the model.

Decentralized socialism: medical care in Yugoslavia.

The health care system in Yugoslavia is based on the principles of reciprocity and solidarity, as regulated by constitutional provisions which guarantee medical care and use of health services as the basic right of all citizens. Medical care is organized on the basis of needs and resources of the society. Its funds are generated through individual contributions of citizens and sociopolitical, working, and other organizations which are accumulated into social insurance funds, for reimbursement of health institutions for the services they provide. Coordination among health institutions, associations of social insurance, and sociopolitical and other concerned organizations is regulated by law. Insured persons within their associations decide on the extent of medical care to which to subscribe and on all rights emanating from the insurance. There are several reimbursement mechanisms such as fee–for–service, capitation, and daily charges. Insured persons through their associations influence the administration of social insurance by means of specifying priorities in terms of certain needs and by deciding on specific contracts with health institutions. The emphasis in contract arrangements is placed on preventive services, home care services, and dispensary care, for which health institutions proportionally receive more money than for hospital services. This arrangement influences the pattern of organization of health institutions and health workers. The new type of institutions that are more and more dominant are integrated health services, so–called medical centers, which provide both preventive and curative services for the population they cover.

Isotropy of Space

It is well known that it is possible to deduce the Lorentz transformations solely on the basis of the principles of relativity, space-time homogeneity, and isotropy of space, without making any use of the principles of reciprocity and of the invariance of the velocity of light. Here we put forward a rigorous and simple formulation of the isotropy principle, which appears to be more general than those usually presented and which, together with the results of a preceding paper, allows us to carry out such a deduction in the physical case of a 4-dimensional space-time in a straightforward and considerably simplified way.

The principles of reciprocity and equivalence of monads and their implications

Twoa priori obvious principles are formulated and their implications are carefully examined.

Exchange and Power in Social Life.

In his landmark study of exchange and power in social life, Peter M. Blau contributes to an understanding of social structure by analyzing the social processes that govern the relations between individuals and groups. The basic question that Blau considers is: How does social life become organized into increasingly complex structures of associations among humans. This analysis, first published in 1964, represents a pioneering contribution to the sociological literature. Blau uses concepts of exchange, reciprocity, imbalance, and power to examine social life and to derive the more complex processes in social structure from the simpler ones. The principles of reciprocity and imbalance are used to derive such processes as power, changes in group structure; and the two major forces that govern the dynamics of complex social structures: the legitimization of organizing authority of increasing scope and the emergence of oppositions along different lines producing conflict and change.

Library Licentiates

Most librarians who are interested in the principles of reciprocity, and bent on equating the professional qualifications of British and American licentiates, naively focus attention on professional training rather than upon trade practices. Consequently, they arrive nowhere in their meditations. The cachet of licensure in the United States is a master's degree in library studies; in Canada, a supplementary bachelor's degree in library studies; and in Britain, an academic post graduate diploma in library studies or registration as an Associate or Fellow in the Library Association. The cachets are marks of endurance, not of competence, and indicate in a general way how truly a licensee is dedicated to a career in library work.