Principle Of Reason Research Articles

Анализ проблем современного человека в аспекте теоретического наследия Франкфуртской школы

The article is devoted to the analysis of problematic aspects of modern human existence within the discourse of the Frankfurt School, which views modern social reality as a totalitarian system, formed under conditions devoid of a proletariat. In this context, the revolutionary idea, in the hands of outsiders and the intelligentsia, transforms into a means of governance and power. The social reality is examined as functioning according to the rules of technocracy and the simulacrum of mass media. Under the influence of an enslaving “repressive civilization”, modern man becomes a mere functionary within it, while the popularization of the ideology of utility and profit inevitably leads to the potential manipulation of both individual and collective thinking. Representatives of the Frankfurt School propose as a means of solving this problem ‒ the restoration of true Reason, acting as an antipode to the global, uniform mind. The authors analyze key philosophical ideas concerning the spiritual and corporeal unity of human beings, as well as the discourse on anthropological and cultural-natural integrity. The human being is considered in the context of a need for an actual social reality functioning according to the principles of love and reason, creativity and artistry, self-identity, and self-sufficiency.

On the «Religion» of Morality: Reflections on the Normative Nature of Divine Law in the Concept of John Austin

Philosophical and legal thought knows a number of theoretical concepts devoted to a grandiose and organic ethical and legal synthesis — the supreme unity of ethics and jurisprudence or reasoning about what is essential for law, supplemented by reasoning about what law should be. The joint task of these disciplines is to find and theoretically describe the best criteria available to the human mind for evaluating human actions. This principle of practical reasonableness, despite its incompleteness and relativity (for everything derived from man bears the signature of its own creator), would serve as a possible foundation stone for humanity in determining and understanding the highest criterion for evaluating proper behavior that only exists in the world. These are divine laws and prescriptions of their norms, this highest link in any normative hierarchy. It is the divine mind, and not the mind of mortal beings, that is the true source of any duties, from the appeal to the content of which it is possible, resorting to a suitable ethical interpretation, to «deduce» (not directly, but from the «image» that the specified content acquired through human mental activity) all other forms of obligation in one or another normative system. A striking example of such a «normative» concept turns out to be the teaching of J. Austin, devoted, if we put aside the positivist or «command» theory of the author, to the basic principles of the relationship between law (including morality) and the laws of God, ultimately to the sphere of human moral forces and freedom.

Does Physics Need Metaphysics?

A number of thinkers both past and present have been skeptical of the role of metaphysics for science. The early modern philosopher David Hume denigrated metaphysics as an attempt to “penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible to the understanding,” while the Logical Positivists saw metaphysics as meaningless, wholly useless to scientific inquiry. In contrast to these thinkers stands the early modern philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. A mathematician and scientist himself, Leibniz developed a variety of metaphysical principles entailed centrally by his Principle of Sufficient Reason. Leibniz utilized these principles to address scientific topics of his day, including, but not limited to, the relative nature of space and the heliocentric model of the universe. Drawing on Leibniz’s diverse corpus, I will reconstruct his formulations of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, the Principle of Perfection, and the Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles, providing the intellectual context for their development. I will then argue through examples that his metaphysical principles illustrate the utility of metaphysics for natural science, for they can be used to both ground the logical coherence of the discipline of physics and serve as practical methodological guides for theory development and selection.

What’s Wrong with Some Having More than Others?

Abstract According to Derek Parfit, “telic” egalitarians accept “The Principle of Equality,” which says, “It is in itself bad if some people are worse off than others” (1991, p. 4). This essay argues that there is no good reason to believe this principle and considerable reason to doubt it. Either egalitarianism is groundless, or this principle misconstrues egalitarianism. The latter is my view. The essay criticizes the main arguments in defense of this principle of equality and offers an explanation why so many mistakenly believe that distributional inequalities are bad.

The principles of the exercise of civil rights in the dynamics of contractual obligations

The article is devoted to the general principles of the execution of civil rights upon the occurrence, performance, change and termination of a contractual obligation. Such general patterns are the principles, the application of which is a legal fact that causes the dynamics of a contractual obligation (emergence, implementation, change, suspension, termination), as well as the protection and protection of civil law and interest). It has been proven that there is a group of principles that are characteristic of all stages of the dynamics of a contractual obligation, which are the principles of legal equality, justice, good faith and reasonableness, dispositiveness. It was analyzed that the principle of freedom of contract and free expression of will are determining principles for the execution of civil rights by participants in contractual obligations, because such principles are designed to ensure the validity of the deed, which will subsequently undergo its dynamic development. The basis of these principles is a voluntary action, without any coercion, to enter or not to enter into contractual relations (that is, emergence as a stage of dynamics), as well as to choose a counterparty, its conditions, methods of provision, special conditions for the exercise of rights and performance of duties, freedom of change and termination of the contract. Therefore, this principle will be relevant for almost all stages of dynamics, only with a different magnitude of its role. It has been proven that the principles of the fulfillment of obligations, namely the principles of proper and real fulfillment of obligations, complement the above-mentioned principles of freedom of contract and free expression of will in importance for the realization of civil rights in contractual obligations. The principles of the exercise of subjective civil rights establish fundamental requirements for the conduct of participants, in particular in contractual obligations. It is proposed to highlight such principles of the exercise of civil rights by participants in contractual obligations as the principles of consistency, unimpededness and full satisfaction of interest. The principle of protection of civil rights is manifested in the abnormal dynamics of the contractual obligation. It has been proven that a certain set of basic principles for the exercise of civil rights is inherent to each stage of the dynamics of a contractual obligation.

Verified Lock-Free Session Channels with Linking

Type systems and program logics based on session types provide powerful high-level reasoning principles for message-passing concurrency. Modern versions employ bidirectional session channels that (1) are asynchronous so that send operations do not block, (2) have buffers in both directions so that both parties can send messages in parallel, and (3) feature a link operation (also called forward) to concisely write programs in process style. These features complicate a low-level lock-free implementation of channels and therefore increase the gap between the meta theory of prior work—which is verified w.r.t. a high-level semantics of channels (e.g., π-calculus)—and the code that runs on an actual computer. We address this problem by verifying a low-level lock-free implementation of session channels w.r.t. a high-level specification based on session types. We carry out our verification in a layered manner by employing the Iris framework for concurrent separation logic. We start with an abstract specification of (unidirectional) queues—of which we provide a linked-list and array-segment based implementation—and gradually build up to session channels with all of the aforementioned features. To make a layered verification possible we develop two logical abstractions—queues with ghost linking and pairing invariants—to reason about the atomicity and changing endpoints due to linking, respectively. All our results are mechanized in the Coq proof assistant.

(Almost-)Quantum Bell Inequalities and Device-Independent Applications

Investigations of the boundary of the quantum correlation set have gained increased attention in recent years. This is done through the derivation of quantum Bell inequalities, which are related to Tsirelson's problem and have significant applications in device-independent (DI) information processing. However, determining quantum Bell inequalities is a notoriously difficult task and only isolated examples are known. In this paper, we present families of (almost-)quantum Bell inequalities and highlight four foundational and DI applications. Firstly, it is known that quantum correlations on the non-signaling boundary are of crucial importance in the task of DI randomness extraction from weak sources. In the practical Bell scenario of two players with two k-outcome measurements, we derive quantum Bell inequalities that demonstrate a separation between the quantum boundary and certain portions of the boundaries of the no-signaling polytope of dimension up to 4k−8, extending previous results from nonlocality distillation and the collapse of communication complexity. Secondly as an immediate by-product, we give a general proof of Aumann’s Agreement theorem for quantum systems as well as the almost-quantum correlations, which implies Aumann’s agreement theorem is a reasonable physical principle in the context of epistemics to pick out both quantum theory and almost-quantum correlations from general no-signaling theories. Thirdly, we present a family of quantum Bell inequalities in the two players with m binary measurements scenarios, that we prove serve to self-test the two-qubit singlet and the corresponding 2m measurements. Interestingly, this claim generalizes the result for m=2 discovered by Tsirelson-Landau-Masanes and shows an improvement over the state-of-the-art Device-Independent Randomness-Amplification (DIRA). Lastly, we use our quantum Bell inequalities to derive the general form of the principle of no advantage in nonlocal computation, which is an information-theoretic principle that serves to characterize the quantum correlation set.

Limits of Interference into the Human Genome

Introduction: The use of advances in genomics in practical medicine can positively affect the quality of services in the healthcare sector, as well as the results of applied medical research. Objectives: The purpose of the article is to research regulatory and scientific approaches to the concept of the human genome as an object of legal relations, as well as to determine the limits of interference into a human being’s genomic integrity. Materials and methods: Regarding the chosen subject matter of research, the author while preparing the scientific article has used materials of international regulatory legal acts, Ukrainian and foreign legal literature. To achieve the set aim, the author has used general scientific and special methods of scientific cognition. These methods combined with the scientific principles of objectivity, scientificity and reasonableness, have provided a comprehensive research of the limits of interference into the human genome. Results: The concept of the human genome, as well as its material and non-material components, have been studied from a biological and legal point of view. The private and legal nature of the human genome as a personal non-property good has been defined. The concept of the individual’s integrity, enshrined in international regulatory legal acts, has been analyzed from the point of view of its coverage of a human being’s genomic integrity. It has been established that a violation of genomic integrity is possible both by the intentional actions of third parties and as a result of genome changes due to the action of natural factors. The concepts and types of the human genome editing have been defined. The potential reasons for banning the editing of human germline cells have been critically analyzed. The legal nature of interference into the human genome from the point of view of eugenical practices has been studied. The author has studied the possibility of classifying the use of vaccines on the mRNA platform as interferences into the human genome. Conclusions: It has been concluded that there is a need to recognize the human genome as a personal non-property good, and, accordingly, as an object of private rights. The author has stated own point of view on the inadmissibility of arbitrary interference into human genomic integrity and the existing types of interference into the human genome.

Impact of Environmental Laws Pertaining to Pollution Problems in Pharma and Chemical Sectors in India

Medical waste is regarded as a hazardous waste of a specific kind because of its high toxicity, presence of radioactive and toxic compounds, and propensity to cause sickness. The degree to which bacteria and viruses are present in medical waste, the dosage and type of exposure, and the degree to which the body is resistant to these pathogens Trash from isolation rooms for patients with infectious disorders, bacterial, infectious, and biological agent residues, waste from sterilization and disinfection, blood, serums, and plasma, and pharmaceutical residues are all considered to be medical waste. This manual offers suggestions for reducing trash creation through source reduction and recycling as well as an explanation of the processes that produce waste in hospitals. Hospitals will benefit by restricting the age of these materials at the source or reusing the wastes on or off site in light of the fact that doing so will limit removal expenses and liabilities connected with discarding hazardous waste. Compared to industrial facilities, general medical and surgical hospitals produce less hazardous wastes overall, although they do so in a number of different forms. Pharmaceuticals were formerly believed to enter the environment largely through usage or improper disposal. It was discovered that some production facilities were the sources of substantially higher ambient concentrations than those brought on by drug use. For both authorities and the pharmaceutical industry, the widespread discovery of waste medicines in environmental samples and the dangers posed by their introduction into wildlife habitats are key issues. Pharmaceutical firms should understand that reducing drug use and environmental damage is in their own best interests because doing so will prevent the emergence of drug resistance, which will prolong the shelf life of their medications. Changes in public and worldwide regulations, the reception of reasonable environmental principles inside current business standards, and requests from medical care suppliers and patients are likely impetuses for activity. Yet, clients can't pursue taught decisions because of the shortage of data about the wellspring of drugs and the impacts of creation on the climate. We suggest that one of several crucial strategies for lowering pollution from medicine manufacture would be improved transparency throughout the entire production chain.

Du Châtelet's causal idealism

ABSTRACT I show that unlike her rationalist predecessor Leibniz, Du Châtelet is committed to epistemic causal idealism about natural causes. According to this view, it is constitutive of natural causes that they are in principle knowable by us (i.e. finite intelligent beings). Du Châtelet’s causal idealism stems at least in part from the distinctive theoretical role played by the Principle of Sufficient Reason in her system (as presented in her Institutions de physique), as well as her argument for the Principle of Sufficient Reason. I show that far from merely explicating Leibniz’s metaphysics, Du Châtelet develops a radical and novel rationalism that is in keeping with her core commitment to science.

Assessing Value-Laden Technology

Technological innovations—tools, artefacts, and processes—open up new possibilities of human action and thereby increase the domain of our positive freedom. Technology is inherently value-laden, since such an intended increase of freedom may be a good or bad relative to human values. The use of tools may also involve unintended and unwanted by-products and side effects. Therefore, technology should not develop in a deterministic or random manner but should be guided by reasonable democratic principles. Technology assessment (TA) is a pattern for the evaluation of technological projects and products by their costs and benefits, risks, and profits. Using philosophical distinctions and arguments as its method, this paper explains, elaborates, and illustrates Niiniluoto’s formula TA = 6E + S for TA. The first E is effectiveness, the ability of the new tool or solution to produce its intended effects. This is the main concern of the engineer. The second is its economic profit, based on the monetary exchange value of the product. This is the domain of economic theories. Effectiveness and economy, and efficiency as their combination, are not the only relevant dimensions of TA. As products of design, artefacts have esthetic qualities, studied today in applied esthetics. The relations of tools to the health of their users are studied in ergonomics. The relations of human technologies to the health of the natural environment and sustainable development are treated in ecology. Technical tools and their effects can always be evaluated by ethical standards which concern their moral worth. Technological systems have also an impact which is social in the broad sense, since they can lead to changes in the communicative, legal, institutional, and political spheres of society.

Risk Evaluation and Software Development of Urban Natural Gas Pipelines Based on Bayesian Networks

Based on the urban natural gas pipeline accident statistics and semi-quantitative risk evaluation index system, this paper applies Bayesian network to establish a network model between various types of risk factors and the risk of natural gas pipeline failure. The EM algorithm was used to learn from the statistical accident data to obtain the parameters of the model. Based on the principle of evidential reasoning in reverse, the probability of occurrence of all risk indicators can be obtained when the probability of occurrence of urban natural gas pipeline accidents is 100%, the index weight is obtained by normalizing the occurrence probability. On this basis, this paper develops an efficient urban natural gas pipeline integrity risk identification and management software. The software can realize the basic data management of urban natural gas pipeline system, pipeline relative risk value calculation, pipeline risk level calculation and other functions, and the results are visualized. Finally, the practicability and effectiveness of the model and software are verified by a case of natural gas pipeline evaluation in a block.

Local-to-non-local transition laws for stiffness-tuneable monoatomic chains preserving springs mass.

Recently, non-local configurations have been proposed by adding beyond nearest neighbour couplings among elements in lattices to obtain roton-like dispersion relations and phase and group velocities with opposite signs. Even though the introduction of non-local elastic links in metamaterials has unlocked unprecedented possibilities, literature models and prototypes seem neither to provide criteria to compare local and non-local lattices nor to discuss any related rules governing the transition between the two configurations. A physically reasonable principle that monoatomic one-dimensional chains must obey to pass from single- to multi-connected systems is here proposed through a mass conservation law for elastic springs thereby introducing a suitable real dimensionless parameter [Formula: see text] to tune stiffness distribution. Therefore, the dispersion relations as a function of [Formula: see text] and of the degree of non-locality [Formula: see text] are derived analytically, demonstrating that the proposed principle can be rather interpreted as a general mechanical consistency condition to preserve proper dynamics, involving the spring-to-bead mass ratio. Finally, after discussing qualitative results and deriving some useful inequalities, numerical simulations and two-dimensional FFTs are performed for some paradigmatic examples to highlight key dynamics features exhibited by chains with finite length as the parameters [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] vary.This article is part of the theme issue 'Current developments in elastic and acoustic metamaterials science (Part 2)'.

Time traveler confirms five minute hypothesis!

Conclusion: What matters for any norm is personal time rather than time. Personal time is a time-like relation (roughly, the time measured by your wristwatch) that knits together scattered temporal parts so that they conform to familiar patterns. David Lewis introduced personal time as an interpretive fiction that allows readers to consistently read fictions about time travelers. Inadvertently, Lewis thereby introduced a metric for all value (including prudence, morality, and aesthetics). Premise: The application of any norm requires personal time rather than time. This principle of reasoning is illustrated by recent debate about Bertrand Russell’s 5 minute hypothesis. This skeptical hypothesis would be undercut if one needs more than 5 minutes to reason about it. But what reasoners actually require is personal time. Once its priority over time is established for the norms governing reasoning, all remaining norms synchronize to personal time. Re-writing diachronic epistemology in Lewis’ atemporal vocabulary salvages much of what is literally true – and exposes the primacy of causation.

Justice as a requirement for the effectiveness of law-enforcement acts

The article is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of the understanding of the category «justice» in the context of understanding the latter as a requirement for the effectiveness of law enforcement acts. It has been established that justice at the level of legislation literally permeates the basic Ukrainian legislation. This concerns, first of all, numerous regulatory legal acts of a constitutional nature and basic codifications in various branches of the legal system. The principles of justice are enshrined in the current legislation of Ukraine, in particular in the following legislative acts: Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine, Economic Code of Ukraine, Criminal Code of Ukraine, Criminal Executive Code of Ukraine, etc. In practice, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine implements the principle of justice in its decisions. It is proven that the requirements of justice cannot be absorbed by the concepts of good faith and reasonableness, but have an independent meaning. It is impossible to agree with the fact that the requirements of justice of a law-enforcement act exist in a «hidden form», because its concept and content can be defined by a specific term. A decision that violates the principles of good faith and reasonableness cannot be recognized as fair. At the same time, a good faith and reasonable decision may theoretically contradict the principle of justice. It was concluded that justice as a requirement for the effectiveness of law-enforcement acts must be perceived in a broad sense - in relation to the entire process of establishing facts, their research, qualification and, ultimately, the law­enforcement act itself. This makes it possible to follow the influence of all stages of law enforcement activities on the adoption of fair law enforcement acts, to evaluate their effectiveness, based on the fact that such decisions acquire not only legal, but also moral force. The legal criteria for the fairness of a law-enforcement act are: the fairness of the law itself (as a general criterion) and the fairness of the normative legal acts that were used during the adoption of the law-enforcement act (as a direct criterion). The justice of a law-enforcement act depends not only on its legality and reasonableness, but also on its compliance with the principles of social justice and moral norms.

A Logical Approach to Type Soundness

Type soundness, which asserts that “well-typed programs cannot go wrong”, is widely viewed as the canonical theorem one must prove to establish that a type system is doing its job. It is commonly proved using the so-called syntactic approach (aka progress and preservation ), which has had a huge impact on the study and teaching of programming language foundations. Unfortunately, syntactic type soundness is a rather weak theorem. It only applies to programs that are well-typed in their entirety, and thus tells us nothing about the many programs written in “safe” languages that make use of “unsafe” language features. Even worse, it tells us nothing about whether type systems achieve one of their main goals: enforcement of data abstraction. One can easily define a language that enjoys syntactic type soundness and yet fails to support even the most basic modular reasoning principles for abstraction mechanisms like closures, objects, and abstract data types. Given these concerns, we argue that programming languages researchers should no longer be satisfied with proving syntactic type soundness, and should instead start proving semantic type soundness , a more useful theorem which captures more accurately what type systems are actually good for. Semantic type soundness is an old idea—Milner’s original account of type soundness from 1978 was semantic—but it fell out of favor in the 1990s due to limitations and complexities of denotational models. In the succeeding decades, thanks to a series of technical advances—notably, step-indexed Kripke logical relations constructed over operational semantics, and higher-order concurrent separation logic as consolidated in the Iris framework in Coq—we can now build (machine-checked) semantic soundness proofs at a much higher level of abstraction than was previously possible. The resulting “logical” approach to semantic type soundness has already been employed to great effect in a number of recent papers, but those papers typically (a) concern advanced problem scenarios that complicate the presentation, (b) assume significant prior knowledge of the reader, and (c) suppress many details of the proofs. Here, we aim to provide a gentler, more pedagogically motivated introduction to logical type soundness, targeted at a broader audience that may or may not be familiar with logical relations and Iris. As a bonus, we also show how logical type soundness proofs can easily be generalized to establish an even stronger relational property— representation independence —for realistic type systems.

MICHEL SERRES

Michel Serres proposes that we reform our relation to the non-human world by striking a new contract to extend democratic rights and legal protections to nature. Following Serres’s lead, this has for the most part been understood in strictly legal terms. In this paper, I will show that the natural contract also has a narrative dimension, and moreover that taking this into account reveals an engagement with the Principle of Sufficient Reason that puts the relation of the natural contract with law in a new light. The natural contract appears not as a standalone, law-based response to the climate emergency but as part of an ongoing rational practice that involves the law, the sciences, and a wider narrative exploration of the human and the non-human. After outlining Serres’s proposal for a natural contract, I will look briefly to his account of Lucretius in The Birth of Physics where both narrative and contract play an important part. Law is treated as a regularity arising from the connection between events, and further as a form of equilibrium modelled on the most advanced knowledge available. Serres’s discussion of Leibniz’s Principle of Sufficient Reason in The Natural Contract shows that the composition of such an equilibrium is both narrative and rational.

Global bioethics in european context

The article analyses the foundations and principles of global bioethics in the European ethical, legal and philosophical contexts. An analysis of European bioethics shows that there are at least three modern models of European bioethics: bioethics as metaethics; bioethics as biolaw; bioethics as applied biomedical ethics. European bioethics originates in the global bioethics of V.R. Potter and F. Jahr, and encompasses not only moral issues of medicine and public health, but also global environmental and social problems. In this context, the convergence of the natural and the human is seen as a rehabilitation of practical philosophy, a further study and development of the principles of practical reason, understood by analogy with the objective laws of nature. The study of constitutions, legislative and legal regulations of European countries has revealed a variety of bioethical principles in the field of biomedicine. However, at the level of legislation in biomedicine, there is a certain influence of the American model of bioethics, biomedical ethics, which is manifested in the principlism methodology and the weak connection between medical and environmental issues. Global bioethics in the European context is characterized by an intensification of bioethical reflection, social relationships and legislative activity in biomedicine within pan-European structures, such as the European Council and the European Union. The defining feature of global bioethics as a phenomenon of European culture and ethos is that its principles can be “activated” only as a semantic and logical integrity. Bioethical principles serve as a kind of harmonising factor of European biopolitics.

Depth Dose According to Depth during Cone Beam Computed Tomography Acquisition and Dose Assessment in the Orbital Area Using a Three-Dimensional Printer

Background: Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is essential for correcting and verifying patient position before radiation therapy. However, it poses additional radiation exposure during CBCT scans. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate radiological safety for the human body through dose assessment for CBCT.Materials and Methods: For CBCT dose assessment, the depth dose was evaluated using a cheese phantom, and the dose in the orbital area was evaluated using a human body phantom self-fabricated with a three-dimensional printer.Results and Discussion: The evaluation of radiation doses revealed maximum doses of 14.14 mGy and minimum doses of 6.12 mGy for pelvic imaging conditions. For chest imaging conditions, the maximum doses were 4.82 mGy, and the minimum doses were 2.35 mGy. Head imaging conditions showed maximum doses of 1.46 mGy and minimum doses of 0.39 mGy. The eyeball doses using a human body phantom model averaged at 2.11 mGy on the left and 2.19 mGy on the right. The depth dose ranged between 0.39 mGy and 14.14 mGy, depending on the change in depth for each imaging mode, and the average dose in the orbit area using a human body phantom was 2.15 mGy.Conclusion: Based on the experimental results, CBCT did not significantly affect the radiation dose. However, it is important to maintain a minimal radiation dose to optimize radiation protection following the as low as reasonable achievable principle.

The Role of The State in Improving Welfare with Giving Salary of Lecturers At Private Universities

Swata Higher Education in providing higher education and research as well as community service are activities in an effort to produce educated people. Research, which is also a research activity that adheres to the rules in an effort to find the truth and solve problems in science, technology or the arts, as well as its service to society, certainly encourages people to live a cultural life. Apart from that, it can also provide reasoning and scientific principles in personal development in the midst of national society. The aim of this research is to explore in depth and encourage a better understanding of the important role that the State can take in ensuring welfare and providing fair salaries for lecturers who teach at private universities. The type of legal research used in this research is normative research. This means that the starting point of the research is an analytical study of statutory regulations related to the issues raised. The approach methods used in this research are the statutory approach, the conceptual approach and the sociological approach (Sociological Jurisprudence). Then the results of this research are that there is a gap between the policies implemented by the government regarding the wages of lecturers at state universities and private universities by looking at the binding regulations in managing universities. One of them is by providing wages to lecturers at State Universities, where the government provides basic wages (salaries), allowances, certification and sufficient remuneration. Meanwhile, the government only charges private universities with certification allowances. Then wages are given by the higher education institution where the lecturers serve according to their abilities at the higher education institution.