Principles Of Cognitive Load Theory Research Articles

Application of Cognitive Load Theory in VR Development and Its Impact on Learning: A Perspective on Prior Knowledge, Learning Interest, Engagement, and Content Comprehension

This research examines the utilization of Virtual Reality (VR) and its implications for the learning process, specifically focusing on learning interest, prior knowledge, learning engagement, and content comprehension. The central objective is to establish a comprehensive model that unravels the intricate interplay between these factors within the context of VR-based learning. The study also aims to shed light on the impact of integrating Cognitive Load Theory into VR development and its effects on the learning experience. Adopting an observational design, this study elucidates the intricate relationships among learning interest, prior knowledge, learning engagement, and content comprehension in VR-based education. The VR technology employed in this research has previously undergone rigorous feasibility testing. The VR application was designed following cognitive load theory principles. Its immersive content offers users a lifelike immersion into the natural habitats of diverse animal species across various global regions. By leveraging VR technology, elementary school students engage in a more profound and authentic learning journey. A total of 85 participants, encompassing fourth and fifth-grade elementary school students, were involved in the study. These students were drawn from schools situated in rural areas in particular regions in Indonesia and had moderate to low economic backgrounds. The variables under examination include Prior Knowledge, Learning Interest, Engagement, and Content Comprehension as learning outcomes. Data analysis was conducted utilizing a blend of linear regression and path analysis techniques, with a confidence level of 95%. The Guttman scale questionnaire was used, and total scores were transformed into a ratio scale through a conversion process. The study reveals a positive correlation between learning interest and learning outcomes, highlighting that a strong interest in a subject contributes to improved learning results. Additionally, both learning interest and prior knowledge influence learning engagement. Students with higher learning interests and prior knowledge are more likely to actively engage in the learning process actively, underscoring internal factors' role in motivating participation. Learning engagement moderates the relationships between learning interest, prior knowledge, and learning outcomes. By enhancing the effect of learning interest and prior knowledge on learning outcomes, engagement enables more comprehensive and practical information processing.

Physician Assistant Educators' Production Blueprint for Video Pedagogy.

This article presents a blueprint for effective video media production in physician assistant (PA) education based on validated pedagogical practices found in the literature. Using the cognitive load theory and a practical blueprint for video production designed for PA educators, this method aims to improve video production practices and better engage students within a format that improves learning outcomes for a diverse body of PA students. Students are interacting with videos, and there is an opportunity for educators to hone practices in video production to enhance student learning. A literature review of pedagogical practices in video production guides the production blueprint for video production. The practical principles of cognitive load theory improve efficiency in assimilating new information, enhance student engagement, and facilitate active and deep learning for a student learner engaging with the instructional video. Based on the literature and the author's educational video creation experience, a guide in the form of a production blueprint specific to PA education is proposed.

Differential instructional effectiveness: overcoming the challenge of learning to solve trigonometry problems that involved algebraic transformation skills

The design principles of cognitive load theory and learning by analogy has independently contributed to our understanding why an instruction will or will not work. In an experimental study involving 97 Year 9 Australian students conducted in regular classrooms, we evaluated the effect of the unguided problem-solving approach, worked examples approach and analogy approach on learning to solve two types of trigonometry problem. These trigonometry problems (sin40° = frac{x}{6} vs. cos50° = frac{14}{x}) exhibited two levels of complexity owing to the location of the pronumeral (numerator vs. denominator). The solution procedure of worked examples provided guidance, whereas the unguided problem-solving was without any guidance. Analogical learning placed emphasis on comparing a pair of isomorphic examples to facilitate transfer. Across the three approaches, solving practice problems contributed towards performance on the post-test. However, the worked examples approach and analogy approach were more efficient than the unguided problem-solving approach for acquiring skills to solve practice problems regardless of their complexity. Therefore, the worked examples approach and analogy approach that emphasizes algebraic transformation skills have the potential to reform instructional efficiency for learning to solve trigonometry problems.

Teaching in Uncertain Times: Expanding the Scope of Extraneous Cognitive Load in the Cognitive Load Theory.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused an unprecedented and highly threatening, constrained, and confusing social and educational environment, we decided to expand the traditional focus of the extraneous load in Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) acknowledging the psychological environment in which learning occurs. We therefore adapted and implemented principles of the CLT to reduce extraneous load for our students by facilitating their educational activities. Given previous empirical support for the principles of CLT, it was expected that the adoption of these principles might enable our students to cultivate attitudes and skills across multiple domains such as online learning and presentation technologies, implementing and maintaining a “classroom atmosphere” in a virtual environment, participating in discussions among large online groups of students, facilitating group work, providing virtual office hours for students, and proactively planning for upcoming semesters.

Academic Management in Uncertain Times: Shifting and Expanding the Focus of Cognitive Load Theory During COVID-19 Pandemic Education.

Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced medical education toward more “online education” approaches, causing specific implications to arise for medical educators and learners. Considering an unprecedented and highly threatening, constrained, and confusing social and educational environment caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, we decided to shift the traditional focus of the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) from students to instructors. In this process, we considered recent suggestions to acknowledge the psychological environment in which learning happens. According to this fundamental fact, “Learning and instructional procedures do not occur in a situational vacuum.” Following this assertion, we adapted and implemented principles of CLT to reduce the extraneous load for our faculty to facilitate continued scholarly activity and support the overall wellbeing of our faculty during these trying times. The adoption of these principles enabled our team to cultivate attitudes and skills across multiple domains, such as online presentation technologies, implementing and maintaining a “classroom atmosphere” in a virtual environment, encouraging discussion among large online groups of students, facilitating group work, providing virtual office hours, and proactively planning for subsequent sessions.

COVID-19 Disruptions in Health Professional Education: Use of Cognitive Load Theory on Students' Comprehension, Cognitive Load, Engagement, and Motivation.

This study explored the impact of online lectures that were developed using principles of cognitive load theory (CLT) and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) on health profession students' lecture comprehension, cognitive load, cognitive engagement, and intrinsic motivation in learning. A total of 215 first-year undergraduate students in medical, dentistry, and nutrition programs participated in this pre-post quasi experimental study. The students attended a typical face-to-face lecture on Day-1 of the intervention, followed by a CLT-based online lecture 8 weeks thereafter. Their comprehension of the lecture topics was measured through pre- and post-lecture assessments, and their cognitive load, cognitive engagement, and motivation were measured immediately after each lecture session. The analysis revealed that the CLT-based online lectures promoted the students' comprehension of the lecture content (p < 0.001), self-perceived learning (p < 0.001), engagement toward the learning material, and motivation to learn (p = 0.025). It was also effective at reducing the students' intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads (p < 0.001). Hence, designing online lectures using CLT and CTML principles could be an effective method to promote students' knowledge and comprehension, cognitive engagement, and learning motivation. However, further research is needed to investigate the applicability and impact of CLT-based online lectures in non-health profession disciplines.

Evaluation of User Experience, Cognitive Load, and Training Performance of a Gamified Cognitive Training Application for Children With Learning Disabilities

This study presents a gamified application for children with learning disabilities, designed to train and improve their working memory capacity. The application takes the form of a treasure hunt and is designed according to a framework incorporating a set of guidelines derived from accessibility, usability, and cognitive load theory principles, and from gamification techniques. The aim is to motivate and engage the children in working memory-training activities and exploit their working memory capacity. The main focus of this study is the evaluation of the cognitive load level induced by the application, the children’s perceived experience, and their training performance over the training period. A sample of 12 Egyptian children with learning disabilities completed a five-week training period using the application, followed by an evaluation process. The evaluation took the form of a simple usability survey, an unstructured observation, and a cognitive load measurement scale. The purpose was to evaluate the children’s perceived experience, assess the level of cognitive load experienced in each of the activities, and measure the expected improvement in the children’s training performance. The results revealed that all the children enjoyed playing the gamified application, were eager to participate in the daily training, and the cognitive load experienced during the training was found to be generally appropriate, although some areas for improvement were identified. Finally, the children’s training performance and their perceived experience were better in the gamified activities with a lower cognitive load level.

Learning accounting through visual representations

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of diagrammatic visualisation techniques versus sentential learning contexts in an accounting subject using the theoretical lens of cognitive load theory (CLT).Design/methodology/approachThe present study used four groups of students; two groups completed a task using diagrammatic visualisation learning materials, with one of the groups undertaking their leaning activities collaboratively and another on an individual basis, whereas two comparison groups were given a sentential learning context without diagrams, with one group undertaking their leaning activities collaboratively and the other individually. In addition to performance grades, cognitive load self-report scores were also elicited from participants.FindingsThe findings of this study indicate support for diagrammatic visualisation techniques for students working collaboratively. Compared with sentential learners, the authors find significantly improved test performance for students who work collaboratively in a diagrammatic visualisation environment. Students in the visualisation environments obtained higher grades than those in the sentential group. In terms of mental effort, students in the visualisation conditions reported the lowest cognitive load.Practical implicationsThe authors conclude that diagrammatic visualisation learning techniques enhance student performance outcomes, particularly for those who work collaboratively. CLT assists in the understanding of the mental processes involved in learning. Instructional designers need to consider CLT when developing diagrammatic visualisation material to enable students to obtain the best possible learning outcomes.Originality/valueThis study addresses a gap in the literature by examining the use of diagrammatic visualisation materials as an alternative to text when learning accounting. The study explores the effect of visualisation material on students’ cognitive load by analysing their mental effort. The study contributes useful findings on visualisation as a conduit to enhancing the understanding of accounting using CLT principles.

Learning linear equations: capitalizing on cognitive load theory and learning by analogy

ABSTRACT Capitalizing on cognitive load theory and learning by analogy, we propose two instructional methods to learn a complex linear equation (e.g. two-step equation) by building on prior knowledge of a simpler linear equation (e.g. one-step equation). We will examine the proposal theoretically in this paper. In line with the design principles of cognitive load theory, we propose to strengthen students’ prior knowledge of simpler linear equations before they learn complex linear equations with the aid of worked examples. Because a subset of the complex linear equation shares the same schema as the simpler linear equation, students can draw on their schema for the simpler linear equation to understand the complex linear equation, thus alleviating the limitation on working memory load. Based on the principles of learning by analogy, we place a simpler linear equation and a complex linear equation side-by-side and label the solution procedure of both linear equations to encourage active analogical comparison between these two equations. Making both the simpler linear equation and the complex linear equation visible to learners may help to reduce cognitive load demands in retrieving the simpler linear equation in order to facilitate the learning of the complex linear equation.

تطویر محتوى تعلیمی رقمی وفقًا لمبادئ نظریة العبء المعرفی وقیاس فاعلیته فی تنمیة مهارات تصمیم قواعد البیانات وإنشائها وبقاء أثر التعلم والیقظة العقلیة لدى طلاب الحاسب

هدف هذا البحث إلى اختبار فاعلية تطوير محتوى تعليمي رقمي وفقا لمبادئ نظرية العبء المعرفي في: تنمية مهارات تصميم قواعد البيانات وإنشائها، وبقاء أثر التعلم، واليقظة العقلية لدى (76) طالبا وطالبة من طلاب الفرقة الثالثة شعبة إعداد معلم الحاسب بکلية التربية النوعية - جامعة المنيا خلال الفصل العام الدراسي الأول 2020/ 2021م، وتم تقديم المحتوى التعليمي الرقمي ومهام التعلم من خلال موقع ويب، ولتحقيق أهداف البحث اتبع الباحثان المنهج شبه التجريبي، وتمثلت أدوات القـياس فـي (اختبار تحصيلي للمعارف المرتبطة بمهارات تصميم قواعد البيانات وإنشائها، وبطاقة تقييم قواعد البيانات المنتجة من طلاب مجموعة البحث، ومقياس اليقظة العقلية)؛ وتم تطبيق الاختبار التحصيلي ومقياس اليقظة العقلية قبل التعلم، وتم تطبيق أدوات القياس الثلاثة بعد التعلم؛ کما أعيد تطبيق الاختبار التحصيلي بعد مرور ثلاثة أسابيع من التطبيق البعدي؛ لقياس بقاء أثر التعلم، وقد أظهرت النتائج أن تطوير المحتوى التعليمي الرقمي وفقا لمبادئ نظرية العبء المعرفي أدى إلى تنمية مهارات تصميم قواعد البيانات وإنشائها بجانبيها المعرفي والأدائي، وکذلک أدى إلى بقاء أثر التعلم، ورفع مستوى اليقظة العقلية لدى طلاب مجموعة البحث. The current paper is aimed at testing the effectiveness of developing digital, educational content according to the principles of cognitive load theory in order to develop the skills of designing and creating databases, maintain the impact of learning and mindfulness among seventy-six 3rd-year students, Computer Teacher Preparation Division at the Faculty of Specific Education, Minia University, during the first term of the academic year 2020/2021. The digital, educational content and learning tasks were presented online. To achieve the research objectives, the 2 researchers adopted the semi-experimental approach, and the measurement tools used included 1) an attainment test of students’ knowledge of the skills of designing and creating databases, a card for evaluating databases designed by the students under study and 3) a mindfulness scale. The achievement test and the mindfulness scale were applied before learning, while the three measurement tools were applied after learning. Also, the achievement test was re-applied after three weeks of post application to measure the maintenance of the learning impact. Results showed that developing digital, educational content according to the principles of cognitive load theory led to the development of the skills of designing and creating databases in their cognitive as well as performance aspects. This was also found effective in maintaining the learning impact and raising the level of mindfulness among the students.

Establishing Diagnostic Skills in Novice Bilingual Clinicians: A Scaffolded Approach

This study sought to scaffold administration performance of a standardized bilingual screener to sufficient levels of accuracy for data collection using principles of Cognitive Load Theory by managing task complexity when training pre-service clinicians. Before training administration skills, two students were given copies of the manual for the Bilingual English Spanish Oral Screener (BESOS) and asked to administer the protocol independently. During the intervention phase, students were scaffolded through administration tasks of increasing complexity and given explicit instruction, which included tailored goals, modeling and feedback. Performance for four skills was assessed using a fidelity rubric and analyzed using visual analysis. Performance varied per skill but overall scores were higher during the intervention phases than during the baseline phase for both students. In addition, accuracy of performance maintained across client participants showing patterns of generalization. Although the data are limited, scaffolding training skills for pre-service clinicians appears supportive in training administration skills for bilingual tasks. The level of support may vary per skill and per language. Future research may seek to investigate other clinical skills and tasks.

An overview on cognitive load theory and concepts of human-computer interaction

With the ever-increasing complexity of e-learning environments, ideas from cognitive load theory (CLT) and human-computer interface (HCI) must be integrated (HCI). Both disciplines’ fundamental ideas were compared and contrasted. A search of the literature database "The Guide to Computing Literature" for the terms "cognitive load theory" and "Sweller" yielded no results. In the titles or abstracts of 65 articles, the term "cognitive burden" appeared. The terms intrinsic, extraneous, and relevant cognitive burden were verified in every article. CLT principles have been used to HCI, according to the review. The notion of relevant cognitive load, on the other hand, has received little attention until now. The authors offer two conceptual models. Extraneous cognitive load is divided into two types in the first model: burden generated by instructional design and load caused by software use. The approach explains the emphasis of current instructional design concepts drawn from CLT, as well as conventional usability considerations. The second model incorporates CLT ideas into user-centered design's fundamental components. When it comes to creating e-learning environments, the idea of relevant cognitive burden shows that increasing cognitive load may be beneficial. Future interdisciplinary research topics have been sketched out.

Learning Echocardiography in the Workplace: A Cognitive Load Perspective.

Although workplace learning environments provide authentic tasks to promote learning, elements of clinical settings may distract trainees and impede learning. The characteristics of workplace learning environments that require optimization are ill-defined. Applying principles of cognitive load theory (CLT) to optimize learning environments by managing intrinsic load (complexity of the task matched to learner knowledge and skill), minimizing extraneous load (any aspect that is not part of task completion), and increasing germane load (processing for storage in long-term memory) could be advantageous. The authors explored trainee perceptions of characteristics that helped or impaired learning from a cognitive load perspective. Echocardiography interpretation was used as a model. The authors conducted semistructured interviews between December 2018 and March 2019 with a purposeful sample of 10 cardiology trainees at the University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine until thematic sufficiency was achieved. Participants represented a range of training levels (3 fourth-year trainees, 2 fifth-year trainees, 3 sixth-year trainees, and 2 advanced echocardiography fellows) and career aspirations (4 desired careers in imaging). Two independent coders analyzed interview transcripts using template analysis. Codes were mapped to CLT subcomponents. Trainees selected their own echocardiograms to interpret; if trainees' skill levels and the complexity of the selected echocardiograms were mismatched, excess intrinsic load could result. Needing to look up information essential for task completion, interruptions, reporting software, and time pressures were characteristics that contributed to extraneous load. Characteristics that related to increasing germane load included the shared physical space (facilitating reading echocardiograms with attendings and just-in-time guidance from near peers) and the availability of final reports to obtain feedback independent of teachers. As interpreted from a cognitive load perspective, findings highlight characteristics of workplace learning environments that could be optimized to improve learning. The findings have direct application to redesigning these learning environments.

Johnstone’s Triangle as a Pedagogical Framework for Flipped-Class Instructional Videos in Introductory Chemistry

A growing body of educational research is demonstrating the improvements to learning gains and student performance that can be promoted by a flipped-classroom model in university chemistry courses. Usually, a core aspect of the flipped-class model is the student viewing of a preclass instructional video, allotting time for an in-class activity during the following lecture. Flipped-classroom instructional videos were prepared for a first-year general chemistry course at the University of British Columbia’s Okanagan campus. Unlike many flipped-class video resources, these videos are not just narrated screen captures. Instead, they are anchored in live instructor recordings, complemented by three different presentation modes, each designed for pedagogical correspondence to a corner of Johnstone’s triangle: narrated screen capture (symbolic), molecular animations (submicroscopic), and experimental laboratory demonstrations (macroscopic). Live instructor recording created a reliable persona for students to interact with, in keeping with tenets of social agency theory, and video format and design were informed by principles of cognitive load theory. Student responses to these videos and the associated flipped-class modules were assessed by using a mixed method approach. Semistructured interviews provided detailed student feedback regarding both student satisfaction and pedagogical utility. Quiz data assessing pre- and postvideo knowledge and student survey data on attitudes toward the flipped-class modules were also collected. Statistical analyses and coded interview data indicated general appreciation and higher satisfaction with flipped-classroom modules compared to traditional lectures, matched by a general student belief that the flipped modules enhanced their learning. Students feel that interactive questions embedded in the videos and the video segments aligned with the Johnstone’s triangle framework contributed positively to their conceptual understanding, while the humor and enthusiastic tone provided by live-footage instructor segments promotes both viewer engagement and trust in the authenticity of the instructional material.

Lifelong Learning

The struggles faced by elder learners suffering from age-related cognitive decline are often overlooked by instructional designers. However, existing educational theories that already inform learning strategy development for other populations should also help establish instructional methods used to help elder learners. In this article, cognitive load theory frames an exploration of proposed means to slow or counteract the effects of age-related cognitive decline in elder learners. Attention is given to the ways in which multimedia learning methods adhering to certain principles of cognitive load theory can increase available working memory capacity. Evidence is provided to show that cognitive load theory-based practices can also facilitate one’s activation of prior knowledge and betters one’s attentional control. Additionally, elder learners benefit from tasks that include worked examples and goal-free problems, whereas conventional, goal-oriented problems impose greater extraneous load on an already taxed working memory. The outcomes of the present analysis can also be applied to stroke victims’ rehabilitation plans and may offer implications for individuals suffering from other brain injuries, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, or dementia-related illnesses.

Cognitive load theory as a framework for simulation-based, ultrasound-guided internal jugular catheterization training: Once is not enough.

The main objective of this study was to use the principles of cognitive load theory to design a curriculum that incorporates a progressive part practice approach to teaching ultrasound-guided (USG) internal jugular catheterization (IJC) to novices. A secondary objective was to compare the technical proficiency of residents trained using this curriculum with the technical proficiency of residents trained with the current local standard of a single simulation session. The experimental group included 16 residents who attended three 2-hour sessions of progressive part practice in a simulation lab. The control group included 46 residents who attended the current local standard of a single 2-hour simulation session just prior to their intensive care unit rotation. Technical proficiency was assessed using hand motion analysis and time to procedure completion. After three sessions, median scores for right hand motion (RHM) (34.5; [27.0-49.0]), left hand motion (LHM) (35.5; [20.0-45.0]), and total time (TT) (117.0 s; [82.7-140.0]) in the experimental group were significantly better than the control group (p<0.001). Results for eight experimental group residents who were assessed for retention at a later date revealed median scores for RHM (45.0; [32.0-58.0]), LHM (33.5; [20.0-63.0]), and TT (150.0 s; [103.0-399.6]), which were significantly better than those of the control group (p=0.01, p<0.01, and p=0.02, respectively). These results support multiple sessions of progressive part practice in a simulation lab as an effective competency-based approach to teaching USG IJC in preparation for the clinical setting.

The Effect of Multi-Media Instructional Design based on Sweller's Theory on Reducing Cognitive Load and Developing Scientific Concepts among Deaf Primary Students

This study aimed to investigate the effect of instructional design of multi-media on reducing cognitive load and the development of scientific concepts among primary school deaf students. It combined the descriptive and quasi-experimental design using an extension of pre-test and post-test experimental-control group design with three groups: an experimental group that was taught the "solar system, stars and galaxies" modules using multimedia software based on the principles of cognitive load theory; a second experimental group was taught the same content using multimedia software but was not based on the principles of cognitive load theory; and a control group that was taught via the textbook. The study sample consisting of 48 male and female deaf students was selected from Al-Amal Institutes at Jeddah, Madinah, and Tabuk. The study used two instruments: scientific concepts test and NASA-TLX scale of cognitive load. The results revealed that the first experimental group outperformed the second and control group students on both measures. However, there was no significant difference between the second experimental and control groups. It is recommended that Sweller’s theory and multimedia be used to design curriculum of science to deaf students.

The Effect of Multi-Media Instructional Design based on Sweller's Theory on Reducing Cognitive Load and Developing Scientific Concepts among Deaf Primary Students

This study aimed to investigate the effect of instructional design of multi-media on reducing cognitive load and the development of scientific concepts among primary school deaf students. It combined the descriptive and quasi-experimental design using an extension of pre-test and post-test experimental-control group design with three groups: an experimental group that was taught the "solar system, stars and galaxies" modules using multimedia software based on the principles of cognitive load theory; a second experimental group was taught the same content using multimedia software but was not based on the principles of cognitive load theory; and a control group that was taught via the textbook. The study sample consisting of 48 male and female deaf students was selected from Al-Amal Institutes at Jeddah, Madinah, and Tabuk. The study used two instruments: scientific concepts test and NASA-TLX scale of cognitive load. The results revealed that the first experimental group outperformed the second and control group students on both measures. However, there was no significant difference between the second experimental and control groups. It is recommended that Sweller’s theory and multimedia be used to design curriculum of science to deaf students.

Designs of goal free problems for learning central and inscribed angles

A mathematics problem solving is usually a non-routine problem that different contexts, concepts or uncommon procedures. There are many strategies to present mathematics problems: with a specific goal or without a specific goal. A problem solving with a specific goal asks students to answer the given question. While a problem without specific goal or goal free does not ask students to solve a specific question, but to solve as many unknown as possibly seen in the problem. According to a Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), mathematics problem in goal free format is more beneficial for students with low prior knowledge since it can reduce extraneous cognitive load. By completing goal free problems, students work forward from “what is known” to any possible move. As a result, students are more likely develop reasoning. Nevertheless, there are very few study of goal free problems in mathematics. Using the principles of CLT, this paper discusses how to design goal free problems, particularly for learning angles in circle: central and inscribed angles, which is considered a difficult topic for junior high schoolers. Furthermore, this paper also discusses how to implement this goal free problem in the real classroom.

Reasserting the role of pre-laboratory activities in chemistry education: a proposed framework for their design

In this article we summarise over 60 reports and research articles on pre-laboratory activities in higher education chemistry. In the first section of the review, we categorise these activities as follows. First are those intending to introduce chemical concepts, that typically take the form of a pre-laboratory lecture, pre-laboratory quizzes, and pre-laboratory discussion. Second are those intending to introduce laboratory techniques, that typically take the form of interactive simulations, technique videos, mental preparation, and safety information. Finally, a small number of activities intended to prepare students for affective aspects of laboratory work, in the form of enabling confidence and generating motivation are described. In the second section of the review, we consider a framework for design of pre-laboratory activities that aligns with the principles of cognitive load theory. We propose how the two tenets of such a framework – supporting learners in complex scenarios and provision of information necessary to complete tasks – can be considered for the case of preparing for laboratory learning. Of particular relevance is the nature of information provided in advance and that provided just in time, characterised as supportive and procedural information respectively. Finally, in the concluding section, we draw together the principles outlined in the framework and findings from reports of pre-laboratory work in chemistry to propose five guidelines for those wishing to incorporate pre-laboratory activities into their laboratory curriculum; an activity we argue has a significant literature basis for us to encourage.