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The Journal of American CultureEarly View ORIGINAL ARTICLE Unpeeling the banana dance: The quare fugitivity of Joséphine Baker Elizabeth Pérez, Corresponding Author Elizabeth Pérez [email protected] Correspondence Elizabeth Pérez Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author Elizabeth Pérez, Corresponding Author Elizabeth Pérez [email protected] Correspondence Elizabeth Pérez Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author First published: 12 June 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/jacc.13460Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Works Cited Baker, Alyah. “Quare Dance: Fashioning a Black, Queer, Fem(me)inist Aesthetic in Ballet.” M.A. thesis, Duke University, 2021. Baker, Jean Claude, and Chris Chase. Josephine: The Hungry Heart. Random House, 1993. Baker, Joséphine, and Marcel Sauvage. Les Mémoires de Joséphine Baker. Corréa, 1949. Barlet, Olivier. African Cinemas: Decolonizing the Gaze. Translated by Chris Turner. Zed, 2000. Baudrillard, Jean. Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings. Stanford UP, 1988. Bennetta, Jules-Rosette. Josephine Baker in Art and Life: The Icon and the Image. University of Illinois Press, 2007. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994. Bogle, Donald. Brown Sugar: Over One Hundred Years of America's Black Female Superstars. Continuum, 2007. Borshuk, Michael. “ Queen of the Colonial Exposition: Josephine Baker's Strategic Performance.” Critical Voicings of Black Liberation: Resistance & Representation in the Americas, edited by Kimberley Louise Phillips, Hermine D. Pinson, Hanna Wallinger, and Lorenzo Thomas. Transaction, 2003. Burns, Karen. “ A House for Josephine Baker.” Postcolonial Space(s), edited by Gülsüm Baydar Nalbantoglu and Chong Thai Wong. Princeton Architectural Press, 1997. Burt, Ramsay. Alien Bodies: Representations of Modernity, Race, & Nation in Early Modern Dance. Routledge, 1998. Camiscioli, Elisa. “Producing Citizens, Reproducing the ‘French Race’: Immigration, Demography, and Pronatalism in Early Twentieth-Century France.” Gender & History, vol. 13, no. 3, 2001, pp. 593– 621. Cheng, Anne Anlin. Second Skin: Josephine Baker & the Modern Surface. Oxford UP, 2010. Cheng, Anne Anlin. “ Skin Deep: Josephine Baker and the Colonial Fetish.” Camera Obscura, no. 23, vol. 3, 2008, pp. 35– 79. 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Henderson, Mae G. “Josephine Baker and La Revue Nègre: From Ethnography to Performance.” Text and Performance Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 2, 2003, pp. 107– 133. hooks, bell. “Micheaux: Celebrating Blackness.” Black American Literature Forum, vol. 25, no. 2, 1991, pp. 351– 60. Johnson, E. Patrick. “‘Quare’ Studies, or (Almost) Everything I Know about Queer Studies I Learned from My Grandmother.” Text and Performance Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 1, 2001, pp. 1– 25. Kraut, Anthea. “Between Primitivism and Diaspora: The Dance Performances of Josephine Baker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Katherine Dunham.” Theatre Journal, vol. 55, no. 3, 2003, pp. 433– 450. Martin, Wendy. “ ‘Remembering the Jungle’: Josephine Baker and Modernist Parody.” Prehistories of the Future: The Primitivist Project and the Culture of Modernism, edited by Elazar Barkan and Ronald Bush. Stanford UP, 1995. McClintock, Anne. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest. Routledge, 1995. Mitchell, Robin. Vénus Noire: Black Women and Colonial Fantasies in Nineteenth-Century France. University of Georgia Press, 2020. Muraz, Gaston. “Les cache-sexe du Centre-Africain.” Journal de la société des africanistes, vol. 2, 1932, pp. 103– 112. Nashashibi, Rami. “The Blackstone Legacy, Islam, and the Rise of Ghetto Cosmopolitanism.” Souls, vol. 9, no. 2, 2007, 123– 31. Nenno, Nancy. “ Femininity, the Primitive, and Modern Urban Space: Josephine Baker in Berlin.” Women in the Metropolis: Gender and Modernity in Weimar Culture, edited by Katharina Ankum. University of California Press, 1997. Peiretti-Courtis, Delphine. “Sauvagerie, édénisme ou érotisme? Regards médicaux sur la nudité africaine (1780-1950).” Dans Outre-Mers, vol. 1, no. 398–399, 2018, pp. 45– 62. Ramel-Cals, Jeanne. “Souvenir de l'Exposition coloniale.” Les Œuvres Libres, vol. 126, 1931, pp. 5– 22. Rose, Phyllis. Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time. Doubleday, 1989. Santana, Dora Silva. “Mais Viva! Reassembling Transness, Blackness, and Feminism.” TSQ, vol. 6, no. 2, 2019, pp. 210– 222. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire. Columbia UP, 1992. Shange, Savannah. “Play Aunties and Dyke Bitches: Gender, Generation, and the Ethics of Black Queer Kinship.” The Black Scholar, vol. 49, no. 1, 2019, pp. 40– 54. Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean. Black Venus: Sexualized Savages, Primal Fears, and Primitive Narratives in French. Duke UP, 1999. Shohat, Ella, and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. Routledge, 1994. Smith, Rommi, with music by Jenni Molloy. “ The Map Where We Meet and Other Queer-Quare Stories: An Essay-as-Performance Set to a Double-Bass Score.” Imagining Queer Methods, edited by Amin Ghaziani and Matt Brim, NYU Press, 2019, pp. 207– 229. Sojoyner, Damien M. “Another Life is Possible: Black Fugitivity and Enclosed Places.” Cultural Anthropology, no. 32, vol. 4, 2017, 514– 536. Torgovnick, Marianna. Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives. University of Chicago Press, 1991. Walcott, Rinaldo. “Freedom Now Suite: Black Feminist Turns of Voice.” Small Axe, no. 22, vol. 3, 2018, 151– 159. Warner, Marina. “ Biography of the Banana.” Independent on Sunday, October 18, 1998, https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/biography-of-the-banana-1179167.html. Accessed 15 March 2023. Early ViewOnline Version of Record before inclusion in an issue ReferencesRelatedInformation

While the term “visual literacy” has grown in popularity in the last 50 years, its meaning remains nebulous. It is described variously as: a vehicle for aesthetic appreciation, a means of defence against visual manipulation, a sorting mechanism for an increasingly data-saturated age, and a prerequisite to civic inclusion (Fransecky 23; Messaris 181; McTigue and Flowers 580). Scholars have written extensively about the first three subjects but there has been less research on how visual literacy frames civic life and how it might help the public as a tool to address disadvantage and assist in removing social and cultural barriers. This article examines a forerunner to visual literacy in the push to create an international symbol language born out of popular education movements, a project that fell short of its goals but still left a considerable impression on graphic media. This article, then, presents an analysis of visual literacy campaigns in the early postwar era. These campaigns did not attempt to invent a symbolic language but posited that images themselves served as a universal language in which students could receive training. Of particular interest is how the concept of visual literacy has been mobilised as a pedagogical tool in design, digital humanities and in broader civic education initiatives promoted by Third Space institutions. Behind the creation of new visual literacy curricula is the idea that images can help anchor a world community, supplementing textual communication. Figure 1: Visual Literacy Yearbook. Montebello Unified School District, USA, 1973. Shedding Light: Origins of the Visual Literacy Frame The term “visual literacy” came to the fore in the early 1970s on the heels of mass literacy campaigns. The educators, creatives and media theorists who first advocated for visual learning linked this aim to literacy, an unassailable goal, to promote a more radical curricular overhaul. They challenged a system that had hitherto only acknowledged a very limited pathway towards academic success; pushing “language and mathematics”, courses “referred to as solids (something substantial) as contrasted with liquids or gases (courses with little or no substance)” (Eisner 92). This was deemed “a parochial view of both human ability and the possibilities of education” that did not acknowledge multiple forms of intelligence (Gardner). This change not only integrated elements of mass culture that had been rejected in education, notably film and graphic arts, but also encouraged the critique of images as a form of good citizenship, assuming that visually literate arbiters could call out media misrepresentations and manipulative political advertising (Messaris, “Visual Test”). This movement was, in many ways, reactive to new forms of mass media that began to replace newspapers as key forms of civic participation. Unlike simple literacy (being able to decipher letters as a mnemonic system), visual literacy involves imputing meanings to images where meanings are less fixed, yet still with embedded cultural signifiers. Visual literacy promised to extend enlightenment metaphors of sight (as in the German Aufklärung) and illumination (as in the French Lumières) to help citizens understand an increasingly complex marketplace of images. The move towards visual literacy was not so much a shift towards images (and away from books and oration) but an affirmation of the need to critically investigate the visual sphere. It introduced doubt to previously upheld hierarchies of perception. Sight, to Kant the “noblest of the senses” (158), was no longer the sense “least affected” by the surrounding world but an input centre that was equally manipulable. In Kant’s view of societal development, the “cosmopolitan” held the key to pacifying bellicose states and ensuring global prosperity and tranquillity. The process of developing a cosmopolitan ideology rests, according to Kant, on the gradual elimination of war and “the education of young people in intellectual and moral culture” (188-89). Transforming disparate societies into “a universal cosmopolitan existence” that would “at last be realised as the matrix within which all the original capacities of the human race may develop” and would take well-funded educational institutions and, potentially, a new framework for imparting knowledge (Kant 51). To some, the world of the visual presented a baseline for shared experience. Figure 2: Exhibition by the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum in Vienna, photograph c. 1927. An International Picture Language The quest to find a mutually intelligible language that could “bridge worlds” and solder together all of humankind goes back to the late nineteenth century and the Esperanto movement of Ludwig Zamenhof (Schor 59). The expression of this ideal in the world of the visual picked up steam in the interwar years with designers and editors like Fritz Kahn, Gerd Arntz, and Otto and Marie Neurath. Their work transposing complex ideas into graphic form has been rediscovered as an antecedent to modern infographics, but the symbols they deployed were not to merely explain, but also help education and build international fellowship unbounded by spoken language. The Neuraths in particular are celebrated for their international picture language or Isotypes. These pictograms (sometimes viewed as proto-emojis) can be used to represent data without text. Taken together they are an “intemporal, hieroglyphic language” that Neutrath hoped would unite working-class people the world over (Lee 159). The Neuraths’ work was done in the explicit service of visual education with a popular socialist agenda and incubated in the social sphere of Red Vienna at the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum (Social and Economic Museum) where Otto served as Director. The Wirtschaftsmuseum was an experiment in popular education, with multiple branches and late opening hours to accommodate the “the working man [who] has time to see a museum only at night” (Neurath 72-73). The Isotype contained universalist aspirations for the “making of a world language, or a helping picture language—[that] will give support to international developments generally” and “educate by the eye” (Neurath 13). Figure 3: Gerd Arntz Isotype Images. (Source: University of Reading.) The Isotype was widely adopted in the postwar era in pre-packaged sets of symbols used in graphic design and wayfinding systems for buildings and transportation networks, but with the socialism of the Neuraths’ peeled away, leaving only the system of logos that we are familiar with from airport washrooms, charts, and public transport maps. Much of the uptake in this symbol language could be traced to increased mobility and tourism, particularly in countries that did not make use of a Roman alphabet. The 1964 Olympics in Tokyo helped pave the way when organisers, fearful of jumbling too many scripts together, opted instead for black and white icons to represent the program of sports that summer. The new focus on the visual was both technologically mediated—cheaper printing and broadcast technologies made the diffusion of image increasingly possible—but also ideologically supported by a growing emphasis on projects that transcended linguistic, ethnic, and national borders. The Olympic symbols gradually morphed into Letraset icons, and, later, symbols in the Unicode Standard, which are the basis for today’s emojis. Wordless signs helped facilitate interconnectedness, but only in the most literal sense; their application was limited primarily to sports mega-events, highway maps, and “brand building”, and they never fulfilled their role as an educational language “to give the different nations a common outlook” (Neurath 18). Universally understood icons, particularly in the form of emojis, point to a rise in visual communication but they have fallen short as a cosmopolitan project, supporting neither the globalisation of Kantian ethics nor the transnational socialism of the Neuraths. Figure 4: Symbols in use. Women's bathroom. 1964 Tokyo Olympics. (Source: The official report of the Organizing Committee.) Counter Education By mid-century, the optimism of a universal symbol language seemed dated, and focus shifted from distillation to discernment. New educational programs presented ways to study images, increasingly reproducible with new technologies, as a language in and of themselves. These methods had their roots in the fin-de-siècle educational reforms of John Dewey, Helen Parkhurst, and Maria Montessori. As early as the 1920s, progressive educators were using highly visual magazines, like National Geographic, as the basis for lesson planning, with the hopes that they would “expose students to edifying and culturally enriching reading” and “develop a more catholic taste or sensibility, representing an important cosmopolitan value” (Hawkins 45). The rise in imagery from previously inaccessible regions helped pupils to see themselves in relation to the larger world (although this connection always came with the presumed superiority of the reader). “Pictorial education in public schools” taught readers—through images—to accept a broader world but, too often, they saw photographs as a “straightforward transcription of the real world” (Hawkins 57). The images of cultures and events presented in Life and National Geographic for the purposes of education and enrichment were now the subject of greater analysis in the classroom, not just as “windows into new worlds” but as cultural products in and of themselves. The emerging visual curriculum aimed to do more than just teach with previously excluded modes (photography, film and comics); it would investigate how images presented and mediated the world. This gained wider appeal with new analytical writing on film, like Raymond Spottiswoode's Grammar of the Film (1950) which sought to formulate the grammatical rules of visual communication (Messaris 181), influenced by semiotics and structural linguistics; the emphasis on grammar can also be seen in far earlier writings on design systems such as Owen Jones’s 1856 The Grammar of Ornament, which also advocated for new, universalising methods in design education (Sloboda 228). The inventorying impulse is on display in books like Donis A. Dondis’s A Primer of Visual Literacy (1973), a text that meditates on visual perception but also functions as an introduction to line and form in the applied arts, picking up where the Bauhaus left off. Dondis enumerates the “syntactical guidelines” of the applied arts with illustrations that are in keeping with 1920s books by Kandinsky and Klee and analyse pictorial elements. However, at the end of the book she shifts focus with two chapters that examine “messaging” and visual literacy explicitly. Dondis predicts that “an intellectual, trained ability to make and understand visual messages is becoming a vital necessity to involvement with communication. It is quite likely that visual literacy will be one of the fundamental measures of education in the last third of our century” (33) and she presses for more programs that incorporate the exploration and analysis of images in tertiary education. Figure 5: Ideal spatial environment for the Blueprint charts, 1970. (Image: Inventory Press.) Visual literacy in education arrived in earnest with a wave of publications in the mid-1970s. They offered ways for students to understand media processes and for teachers to use visual culture as an entry point into complex social and scientific subject matter, tapping into the “visual consciousness of the ‘television generation’” (Fransecky 5). Visual culture was often seen as inherently democratising, a break from stuffiness, the “artificialities of civilisation”, and the “archaic structures” that set sensorial perception apart from scholarship (Dworkin 131-132). Many radical university projects and community education initiatives of the 1960s made use of new media in novel ways: from Maurice Stein and Larry Miller’s fold-out posters accompanying Blueprint for Counter Education (1970) to Emory Douglas’s graphics for The Black Panther newspaper. Blueprint’s text- and image-dense wall charts were made via assemblage and they were imagined less as charts and more as a “matrix of resources” that could be used—and added to—by youth to undertake their own counter education (Cronin 53). These experiments in visual learning helped to break down old hierarchies in education, but their aim was influenced more by countercultural notions of disruption than the universal ideals of cosmopolitanism. From Image as Text to City as Text For a brief period in the 1970s, thinkers like Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan et al., Massage) and artists like Bruno Munari (Tanchis and Munari) collaborated fruitfully with graphic designers to create books that mixed text and image in novel ways. Using new compositional methods, they broke apart traditional printing lock-ups to superimpose photographs, twist text, and bend narrative frames. The most famous work from this era is, undoubtedly, The Medium Is the Massage (1967), McLuhan’s team-up with graphic designer Quentin Fiore, but it was followed by dozens of other books intended to communicate theory and scientific ideas with popularising graphics. Following in the footsteps of McLuhan, many of these texts sought not just to explain an issue but to self-consciously reference their own method of information delivery. These works set the precedent for visual aids (and, to a lesser extent, audio) that launched a diverse, non-hierarchical discourse that was nonetheless bound to tactile artefacts. In 1977, McLuhan helped develop a media textbook for secondary school students called City as Classroom: Understanding Language and Media. It is notable for its direct address style and its focus on investigating spaces outside of the classroom (provocatively, a section on the third page begins with “Should all schools be closed?”). The book follows with a fine-grained analysis of advertising forms in which students are asked to first bring advertisements into class for analysis and later to go out into the city to explore “a man-made environment, a huge warehouse of information, a vast resource to be mined free of charge” (McLuhan et al., City 149). As a document City as Classroom is critical of existing teaching methods, in line with the radical “in the streets” pedagogy of its day. McLuhan’s theories proved particularly salient for the counter education movement, in part because they tapped into a healthy scepticism of advertisers and other image-makers. They also dovetailed with growing discontent with the ad-strew visual environment of cities in the 1970s. Budgets for advertising had mushroomed in the1960s and outdoor advertising “cluttered” cities with billboards and neon, generating “fierce intensities and new hybrid energies” that threatened to throw off the visual equilibrium (McLuhan 74). Visual literacy curricula brought in experiential learning focussed on the legibility of the cities, mapping, and the visualisation of urban issues with social justice implications. The Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute (DGEI), a “collective endeavour of community research and education” that arose in the aftermath of the 1967 uprisings, is the most storied of the groups that suffused the collection of spatial data with community engagement and organising (Warren et al. 61). The following decades would see a tamed approach to visual literacy that, while still pressing for critical reading, did not upend traditional methods of educational delivery. Figure 6: Beginning a College Program-Assisting Teachers to Develop Visual Literacy Approaches in Public School Classrooms. 1977. ERIC. Searching for Civic Education The visual literacy initiatives formed in the early 1970s both affirmed existing civil society institutions while also asserting the need to better inform the public. Most of the campaigns were sponsored by universities, major libraries, and international groups such as UNESCO, which published its “Declaration on Media Education” in 1982. They noted that “participation” was “essential to the working of a pluralistic and representative democracy” and the “public—users, citizens, individuals, groups ... were too systematically overlooked”. Here, the public is conceived as both “targets of the information and communication process” and users who “should have the last word”. To that end their “continuing education” should be ensured (Study 18). Programs consisted primarily of cognitive “see-scan-analyse” techniques (Little et al.) for younger students but some also sought to bring visual analysis to adult learners via continuing education (often through museums eager to engage more diverse audiences) and more radical popular education programs sponsored by community groups. By the mid-80s, scores of modules had been built around the comprehension of visual media and had become standard educational fare across North America, Australasia, and to a lesser extent, Europe. There was an increasing awareness of the role of data and image presentation in decision-making, as evidenced by the surprising commercial success of Edward Tufte’s 1982 book, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Visual literacy—or at least image analysis—was now enmeshed in teaching practice and needed little active advocacy. Scholarly interest in the subject went into a brief period of hibernation in the 1980s and early 1990s, only to be reborn with the arrival of new media distribution technologies (CD-ROMs and then the internet) in classrooms and the widespread availability of digital imaging technology starting in the late 1990s; companies like Adobe distributed free and reduced-fee licences to schools and launched extensive teacher training programs. Visual literacy was reanimated but primarily within a circumscribed academic field of education and data visualisation. Figure 7: Visual Literacy; What Research Says to the Teacher, 1975. National Education Association. USA. Part of the shifting frame of visual literacy has to do with institutional imperatives, particularly in places where austerity measures forced strange alliances between disciplines. What had been a project in alternative education morphed into an uncontested part of the curriculum and a dependable budget line. This shift was already forecasted in 1972 by Harun Farocki who, writing in Filmkritik, noted that funding for new film schools would be difficult to obtain but money might be found for “training in media education … a discipline that could persuade ministers of education, that would at the same time turn the budget restrictions into an advantage, and that would match the functions of art schools” (98). Nearly 50 years later educators are still using media education (rebranded as visual or media literacy) to make the case for fine arts and humanities education. While earlier iterations of visual literacy education were often too reliant on the idea of cracking the “code” of images, they did promote ways of learning that were a deep departure from the rote methods of previous generations. Next-gen curricula frame visual literacy as largely supplemental—a resource, but not a program. By the end of the 20th century, visual literacy had changed from a scholarly interest to a standard resource in the “teacher’s toolkit”, entering into school programs and influencing museum education, corporate training, and the development of public-oriented media (Literacy). An appreciation of image culture was seen as key to creating empathetic global citizens, but its scope was increasingly limited. With rising austerity in the education sector (a shift that preceded the 2008 recession by decades in some countries), art educators, museum enrichment staff, and design researchers need to make a case for why their disciplines were relevant in pedagogical models that are increasingly aimed at “skills-based” and “job ready” teaching. Arts educators worked hard to insert their fields into learning goals for secondary students as visual literacy, with the hope that “literacy” would carry the weight of an educational imperative and not a supplementary field of study. Conclusion For nearly a century, educational initiatives have sought to inculcate a cosmopolitan perspective with a variety of teaching materials and pedagogical reference points. Symbolic languages, like the Isotype, looked to unite disparate people with shared visual forms; while educational initiatives aimed to train the eyes of students to make them more discerning citizens. The term ‘visual literacy’ emerged in the 1960s and has since been deployed in programs with a wide variety of goals. Countercultural initiatives saw it as a prerequisite for popular education from the ground up, but, in the years since, it has been formalised and brought into more staid curricula, often as a sort of shorthand for learning from media and pictures. The grand cosmopolitan vision of a complete ‘visual language’ has been scaled back considerably, but still exists in trace amounts. Processes of globalisation require images to universalise experiences, commodities, and more for people without shared languages. Emoji alphabets and globalese (brands and consumer messaging that are “visual-linguistic” amalgams “increasingly detached from any specific ethnolinguistic group or locality”) are a testament to a mediatised banal cosmopolitanism (Jaworski 231). In this sense, becoming “fluent” in global design vernacular means familiarity with firms and products, an understanding that is aesthetic, not critical. It is very much the beneficiaries of globalisation—both state and commercial actors—who have been able to harness increasingly image-based technologies for their benefit. To take a humorous but nonetheless consequential example, Spanish culinary boosters were able to successfully lobby for a paella emoji (Miller) rather than having a food symbol from a less wealthy country such as a Senegalese jollof or a Morrocan tagine. This trend has gone even further as new forms of visual communication are increasingly streamlined and managed by for-profit media platforms. The ubiquity of these forms of communication and their global reach has made visual literacy more important than ever but it has also fundamentally shifted the endeavour from a graphic sorting practice to a critical piece of social infrastructure that has tremendous political ramifications. Visual literacy campaigns hold out the promise of educating students in an image-based system with the potential to transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries. This cosmopolitan political project has not yet been realised, as the visual literacy frame has drifted into specialised silos of art, design, and digital humanities education. It can help bridge the “incomplete connections” of an increasingly globalised world (Calhoun 112), but it does not have a program in and of itself. Rather, an evolving visual literacy curriculum might be seen as a litmus test for how we imagine the role of images in the world. 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M/C Journal

Aug 19, 2021
Samuel Holleran

Reviewed by: W. E. B. Du Bois's Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America ed. by Whitney Battle-Baptiste and Britt Rusert Christopher McAuley W. E. B. Du Bois's Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America. Ed. Whitney Battle-Baptiste and Britt Rusert. Hudson, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2018. Pp. 144 + 63 illustrations. $29.95 (cloth). "Black America in Technicolor" is what may come to mind as one studies the vividly colored and creatively designed maps, bar graphs, pie charts, and other shapes that W. E. B. Du Bois and his collaborators used to represent Black America at the Exposition Universelle in Paris at the opening of the twentieth century, now assembled and published for the first time by Whitney Battle-Baptiste and Britt Rusert in W. E. B. Du Bois's Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America. So accustomed are we to viewing social scientific data in black and white that we can forget that the originals, in some cases, were vibrantly rendered in the full spectrum of colors. But as the editors and contributors—Aldon Morris, Mabel O. Wilson, and Silas Munro—make clear in their short but effective contextual essays and commentaries, the choice of hues was only one part of the Du Bois team's strategy of data representation. No less important to its members were the configuration and layout of the numerical and statistical information, fully cognizant of the fact that to challenge hardened perceptions, like racial ones, the researcher must appeal to the senses as much to the intellect. Hence, their use of a variety of geometric shapes, angles, planes, symbols, lettering, and fonts in their "infographics." The results are exceedingly striking visual representations of data that one has to literally see to appreciate, especially those that Du Bois's team constructed to convey Black migrations and measures of social progress in literacy, landownership, and school enrollment. Our contemporary visual renderings of data look drab and flatly unimaginative in comparison. A firm believer in the independent power of empirical data Du Bois may well have been, but he also understood, like any Parisian boutiquier, that there is power in presentation. [End Page 196] The volume contains reproductions of all sixty-three "data visualizations" that were part of the American Negro Exhibit, and are divided into the categories that Du Bois's "design team" chose: The Georgia Negro: A Social Study and A Series of Statistical Charts Illustrating the Condition of the Descendants of Former African Slaves Now in Residence in the United States of America. Accompanying each plate are informative and suggestive remarks by Munro, describing how the Du Bois team's visual innovations anticipate later artistic movements. As the editors and contributors note, the aim of the Du Bois team was to present Black America at the state, national, and international levels, so as to move exhibit attendees to locate Black America in global history and processes, including their particular experience of racial enslavement. Also included in the volume is a reproduction of a photo of the exhibit area of the American Negro Exhibit, which shows the framed and mounted infographics along the back and side walls, as well as those in double-sided wing frames. The photo also reveals the other "eclectic set of objects, images, and texts" that Du Bois's team assembled in the exhibit area, including framed photographic portraits of prominent African American leaders and politicians; tools, harnesses, and other agricultural products from black industrial schools; a bronze statuette of Frederick Douglass; and an on-site collection of over two hundred and fifty publications authored by African Americans and compiled by Daniel Alexander Payne Murray. (9) The photo, along with the editors' inventory of the archive that the Du Bois team used to represent Black America, allow the reader to imagine how white European and North American passers-by, on-lookers, and the curious received that information and what they later related to others about it. We have no way of knowing if the committee that awarded Du Bois a gold medal for coordinating the American Negro Exhibit at the Exposition Universelle did so because its members were genuinely convinced of the central points of the exhibit's designers: that Black American...

Book Reviews 207 answers questions the board tackled in their efforts to explain what had happened. Was the ship seaworthy? Were inspections up to date? Was the crew properly trained? Again, this is told through excerpts of the witness testimony, with each speaker and his role in the investigation identified. The cast of characters here is large, but a witness list at the end of the book provides a useful reference to help the reader keep track. This section ends with a postscript from Schumacher, explaining the eventual underwater efforts that positively identified the wreckage and its history since, ending with legislation that limited access to the wreck and recognized it as the gravesite of the Fitzgerald’s twenty-nine lost crewmembers. The third section consists of three documents: the report from the Coast Guard board of inquiry—detailing both their theory as to how the loss happened and recommendations to prevent like disasters in future— a response from the shipping industry body vehemently opposing the board’s conclusions, and the National Transportation and Safety Board’s marine accident report. These documents provide some closure to the earlier questions surrounding the loss while also explaining why controversy continues over what exactly happened. On the whole, the book provides a well-curated narrative. It will be of particular interest as an entrée to the primary sources for the enthusiast of Great Lakes shipping or shipwrecks broadly, and of course the Edmund Fitzgerald specifically. But Schumacher has also succeeded in making it quite approachable for someone whose only previous knowledge of the Fitzgerald comes from Lightfoot. Penelope K. Hardy University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Susan Skarsgard. Where Today Meets Tomorrow: Eero Saarinen and the General Motors Technical Center. Hudson, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2019. Pp. 256. Bibliography. Illustrations. Index. Hardcover: $60.00. In 1944, as the Second World War drew to a close, General Motors’ corporate luminaries Alfred Sloan and Charles Kettering anticipated that there would be a robust growth in the automobile industry in peacetime America. Answering the need for a new headquarters that could consolidate all of GM’s departments onto a single location, the General Motors Technical Center was constructed, opening its doors in 1956. Susan Skarsgard, founder of the GM Design Archives and Special Collections, offers a vivid and energetic account of the creation of the 208 The Michigan Historical Review Center from conception to completion. Replete with numerous photographs of the Technical Center in its 1950s prime, this book is both authoritative and beautiful. The GM Technical Center was conceived under the leadership of Alfred Sloan, company president from 1920-1947. When the company outgrew its Detroit headquarters in 1944, it purchased 88 acres in Warren. From its conception, every element of the new campus was conceived to inspire creativity and reflect the company’s focus on style and advanced engineering. To this end, the design of the campus was given to the architectural firm of Eliel and Eero Saarinen: Finnish-born architects whose design philosophy reflected the influence of the Bauhaus school. No expense was spared in making every element of the campus beautiful, from the styling of the buildings (designed to reference their intended purposes) down to the silverware in the executive dining room. In 1956, just six years after ground was broken, the Center opened with much fanfare and media acclaim. Walter Cronkite was Master of Ceremonies at the grand opening; this included a live telecast from President Eisenhower, who delivered an address from the White House. With unsparing attention to detail, the Technical Center anticipated by half a century the palatial campuses of the likes of Google, Facebook, and Apple. Its buildings were arranged into five groupings: engineering, research, styling, process development, and service organization. Their rectilinear, flat-roofed forms echoed the geometry of the site’s large, manmade lake; accented with a fountain designed by Alexander Calder. To establish a visual personality for each department, each had a distinctive, cavernous lobby replete with sleek, space-age furniture and visually arresting staircases that seemed to defy the laws of gravity. The ethos of the campus exuded the company’s optimistic vision of a technology-driven future. Skarsgard emphasizes the significance of...

Sandy Isenstadt Electric Light: An Architectural History Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2018, 304 pp., 27 color and 109 b/w illus. $44.95 (cloth), ISBN 9780262038171 Aaron V. Wunsch and Joseph E. B. Elliott Palazzos of Power: Central Stations of the Philadelphia Electric Company 1900–1930 New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2016, 160 pp., 124 b/w illus. $29.95 (cloth), ISBN 9781616895006 “A bicycle shed is a building. Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture,” Nikolaus Pevsner famously wrote at the beginning of his Outline of European Architecture .1 The two books under review, both of which deal in various ways with electricity and architecture, offer compelling evidence of how far the study of architectural history has moved away from Pevsner's formulation. Beyond this, the books diverge. Sandy Isenstadt's Electric Light is a series of meditations on the way electrical lighting has altered both the built environment and our perception of it. In contrast, Palazzos of Power , with text by Aaron V. Wunsch and images by Joseph E. B. Elliott, is a case study of a single building type erected by a single company in a single urban area over a narrow time span. It is probably best to think of Palazzos of Power as a portfolio of photographs. It includes a short but eloquent foreword by David Nye, the peerless chronicler of the history of technology, who puts the subject into a broad historical perspective. Wunsch contributes an informative essay that discusses in more detail the history of the Philadelphia Electric Company (PECO), the technology it employed, the buildings it erected, and the two men most responsible for the buildings pictured in the book, namely, company engineer William C. L. Eglin and the Philadelphia architect John T. Windrim. According to Wunsch, PECO was the result of a series of mergers that took place during a period of tumultuous technological change in the electrical industry. The result was a unified power company for the Philadelphia region, one of the country's most heavily industrialized urban areas. As the company grew, it became clear that the power stations located in the city center and using direct current for transmission were insufficient to …

ABSTRACTIn the absence of street names or recognizable addresses, paired with rampant unplanned development and a lack of municipal initiative, Beirut defies traditional readings and can be described as unmappable. This paper documents an attempt to synthesize my ongoing artistic practice and my academic research into the representation of the contemporary city. It incorporates Guattari’s machinic, Debord’s psychogeography, and Rauschenberg’s neo-Dada approach to objects, all seen through the lens of Landscape Urbanism, an emerging field of study which places ‘the emphasis on urban processes … to construct a dialectical understanding of how [spatial form] relates to the processes that flow through, manifest, and sustain it’ (Corner, 2006. Terra fluxus. In C. Waldheim (Ed.), The landscape urbanism reader (pp. 21–33). New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p. 28). Conventional methods of looking at the city rely on static components and techniques, rendering them ‘inflexible in relation to the rapidly transforming conditions of contemporary urban culture’ (Waldheim, 2006. Landscape as urbanism. In C. Waldheim (Ed.), The landscape urbanism reader (pp. 35–53). New York: Princeton Architectural Press, p. 37). By incorporating traditionally unmappable forces, a machinic analysis of the city results in a more responsive, process-based framework that helps to dissociate systems from traditional formal and programmatic qualities. The subsequent mappings do not present the recognizable urban forms or landmarks usually associated with Beirut; my maps are not about way-finding. Instead, they are anecdotal diagrams, abstract schematics, and stylized image/objects that are intended as creative visualizations of subjective experiences and cultural practices in contemporary Beirut. They aspire to be insistently provocative to the urban way that ‘transforms the city … into an autocritical artifact’ (Vidler, 1992. The architectural uncanny: Essays in the modern unhomely. Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 210).

Feminist Studies 45, no. 1. © 2019 by Feminist Studies, Inc. 129 Miriam Kienle Dear Data: Feminist Information Design’s Resistance to Self-Quantification Every Sunday for one year, information designers Giorgia Lupi and Stefanie Posavec sent each other a hand-drawn postcard that featured a data visualization of their week as it pertained to a single aspect of their daily lives: doors opened, clocks checks, sounds heard, smells perceived, and so on (figs. 1–4). With this series of postcards exchanged between Brooklyn and London, Lupi and Posavec gained intimate knowledge of one another through their small/slow data, and at the same time, they produced a critical examination of the capture, interpretation, and visualization of their daily data from a uniquely feminist perspective. Although the field of information design prizes clear, efficient, and seamless presentations of quantified activity, Lupi and Posavec’s Dear Data (2015) is comprised of visualizations that underscore complexity over clarity, present questions rather simply display information, and expose the instability of data itself.1 Against the quantification of embodied experience into seemingly objective and all-encompassing datasets, Dear Data instead looks at data from a feminist perspective, as tied to concrete bodies, localities, and temporalities and visualized in a manner 1. The approach to infographics that prioritizes efficiency, accuracy, and elegance , and thus suppresses the constructed and interpretative nature of both data and its visualization, is perhaps most attributed to Edward Tufte. For Tufte’s aims and methods, see Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 2001). 130 Miriam Kienle that is incomplete, contingent, and constructed.2 This paper will analyze Lupi and Posavec’s designs as providing a model for a feminist approach to data visualization—a model imperative in an age in which the quantitative information (much like a binary understanding of gender) is too often treated as a self-evident fact rather than what feminist philosopher Donna Haraway famously called “situated knowledges.”3 Recently acquired by MoMA’s architecture and design collection, the Dear Data project not only stands out in the collection as the product of two female designers working in the male-dominated fields of technology and design, but also as a project that stresses feminist knowledge production by underscoring how data voids shape datasets and debunking the myth that the world is data that can be captured and visualized with neutral, distanced, and all-encompassing technologies of vision. As Catherine D’Ignazio and Lauren Klein describe in Data Feminism, data visualization from a feminist perspective understands that “bar charts might seem neutral and objective, but are in fact the result of very human and necessarily imperfect design processes.”4 Such a perspective is evident across Dear Data. Take, for example, “Week 42: A week of laughter” (fig. 5). On the key in Posavec’s visualization, she notes: “I tried to capture my laughs which was really hard + got in the way of the enjoying life, hence the data voids. / For a card about laughter I am sad about how this card turned out.”5 This willingness to show the gaps in her data, the complexities of her process, and the imperfections of her visualizations contrasts with the seamless and straightforward displays of information 2. For a feminist approach to data visualization, see Catherine D’Ignazio and Lauren Klein, Data Feminism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2019), ebook; Catherine D’Ignazio, “What Would Feminist Data Visualization Look Like?” Center for Civic Media. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (blog), December 20, 2015, https://civic.mit.edu/feminist-data-visualization; and Johanna Drucker, Graphesis: Visual Forms of Knowledge Production (Cambridge , MA: Harvard University Press, 2014). 3. Donna Haraway, “Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective,” Feminist Studies 14, no. 3 (1988): 575–99. 4. D’Ignazio and Klein, introduction to their Data Feminism. 5. Giorgia Lupi and Stefanie Posavec, Dear Data (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2016), 231. Miriam Kienle 131 or what infographic guru Edward Tufte describes as “Designs so good that they are invisible.”6 Counter to the invisible and seemingly objective visualizations of our personal data to which we have become accustomed (on calorie counters, credit card statements, etc...

ABSTRACTMany writers and artists have been interested in the aesthetic beauty and the language of maps. Katherine Harman, author of You Are Here: Personal Geographies and Maps of the Imagination, argues that ‘part of what fascinates us when looking at a map is inhabiting the mind of its maker, considering that particular terrain of imagination overlaid with those unique contour lines of experience’ [Harman, Katherine. 2004. You Are Here: Personal Geographies and Other Maps of the Imagination. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 11]. This suggests a palimpsestic relationship that I too want to explore: between the personal experience that one gains from a particular place and the way that this experience, in turn, makes one read a place differently, more idiosyncratically, thus coming to influence one’s sense of identity. This palimpsestic relationship – juxtaposing the process of cartography with creative writing – forms one part of this article’s focus. But it is linked to a second concern, which relates especially to coastal regions, where there is forever a tussle between sea and land over sovereignty. It struck me that prose poetry captures a similar tension between the prosaic and the poetic. The palimpsestic and littoral qualities of prose poetry thus provide the twin foci of this article, which explores these attributes in relation to the sense of place in the north of England.

Review of Giorgio Maffei, Munari’s Books, New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2015. 288 pp. ISBN 978-1-616-89386-6. Munari’s Books by Giogio Maffei, like its subtitles states, is “the definitive collection of book designs by Bruno Munari”, being “the first English-English monograph” about him. Bruno Munari was an Italian designer who lived between 1907 and 1998, and made a huge contribution to an understanding of the materialities of the book and its interdisciplinary functionality as we know it nowadays. He considered books the “best medium to communicate his visual ideas (…) and convey his creative spirit” and by his practices he created new perspectives about the possibilities inherent in bibliographic structures as forms of visual and haptic communication.

This article deals with the visualization of textual information, and provides a description and an analysis of the principal means by which this process of visualization can be achieved. Extensive attention has been given to images of various kinds which are being employed nowadays in almost all types of discourse and on different language levels, and their specific advantages and disadvantages have been noted. Other media devices including charts, graphs and various types of diagrams have received some attention as well, although not to the same degree, and their importance and their unique characteristics have been described. The distinctive features of non-verbal means have been analyzed in the light of the developmental patterns which can be observed in recent decades. A great deal of attention has been focused on the fact that traditional paradigms are in the process of being reoriented in the 21st century. As a result of this evolution, it is necessary to reconsider some paradigms which we may have assumed to be fixed permanently. On a broader level, the concepts of multimodal and visual literacy have been characterized in terms of the approaches which are proving to be appropriate for present-day linguistic study. References  Barnes B. S. (2011). An Introduction to Visual Communication: from Cave Art to SecondLife. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc. Berger, A. A. (2008). Seeing is Believing. An Introduction to Visual Communication.USA: McGrawHill. Learning Solutions. Bateman, J. A. (2014). Text and Image: a Critical Introduction to the Visual/VerbalDivine. London & New York: Routledge. Bergstrom, B. (2008). Essentials of Visual Communication. London: Laurence KingPublishing Ltd. Donis A. D. (1998). A Primer of Visual Literacy. Cambridge & London: The MIT Press Elkins, J. (2008). Visual literacy. London & New York: Routledge. Kress G., Leeuwen, T. van. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media ofContemporary Communication. London: Arnold. Kress, G. (2004). Literacy in the New Media Age. London & New York: Routledge. Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: a Social Semiotic Approach to ContemporaryCommunication. London and New York: Routledge. Kress, G., Leeuwen, T. van. (2006). Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design.London & New York: Routledge. Leborg, C. (2006). Visual Grammar. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Lester, P. (2006). Visual Communication: Images with Messages. Cаnada: WadsworthCengage Learning. O’Halloran, K. (2011). Multimodal Discourse Analysis. London & New York: Continuum.

The Smithsonian's Archives of American Art holds in its collections millions of handwritten documents. Curatorial projects bring focus to the personal and historically significant qualities of these resources. This article provides an overview of two recent projects organized by the Archives of American Art: the publication Pen to Paper. Artists’ Handwritten Letters from the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art (Princeton Architectural Press, 2016) and the 2014–2015 exhibition A Day in the Life: Artists’ Diaries from the Archives of American Art. With the Transcription Center as an entry point, the Archives expanded its presentations of primary sources to online audiences. The article discusses the primary goals of our transcription projects, specifically, enhanced interaction between people and our collections. The article also considers strategies of online communication and analysis of the projects’ outcomes.

Book Review| March 01 2015 Hollywood Frame by Frame: The Unseen Silver Screen in Contact Sheets, 1951–1997 by Karina Longworth BOOK DATA Karina Longworth, Hollywood Frame by Frame: The Unseen Silver Screen in Contact Sheets, 1951–1997. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2014. $30.00 cloth. 208 pages. Farran Smith Nehme Farran Smith Nehme Farran Smith Nehme writes about classic film at her blog, Self-Styled Siren. Her writing has also appeared in the New York Post, Barron's, the Wall Street Journal, and The Baffler. Her first novel, Missing Reels, is now out from the Overlook Press. Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Film Quarterly (2015) 68 (3): 93–94. https://doi.org/10.1525/fq.2015.68.3.93 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Farran Smith Nehme; Hollywood Frame by Frame: The Unseen Silver Screen in Contact Sheets, 1951–1997 by Karina Longworth. Film Quarterly 1 March 2015; 68 (3): 93–94. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/fq.2015.68.3.93 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentFilm Quarterly Search This content is only available via PDF. © 2015 by The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Please direct all requests for permission to photocopy or reproduce article content through the University of California Press's Rights and Permissions website, http://www.ucpressjournals.com/reprintinfo.asp.2015 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

The Personal Is the Historical: Souvenirs, Relics, and Living Exhibitions Steven Conn (bio) Teresa Barnett. Sacred Relics: Pieces of the Past in Nineteenth-Century America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013. 264pp. Notes and index. $40.00. William L. Bird, Jr. Souvenir Nation: Relics, Keepsakes, and Curios from the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History in association with Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2013. 176pp. Illustrations, notes, and credits. $24.95. William S. Walker. A Living Exhibition: The Smithsonian and the Transformation of the Universal Museum. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013. 304pp. Illustrations, notes, and index. $80.00 (cloth); $27.95 (paper). If years of watching “Antiques Roadshow” has taught us anything, it is that one person’s garage-sale junk is another person’s treasure—worth somewhere in the five figures. We Americans like to collect stuff, and whole industries have blossomed promising to help us deal with it all. You can shop at the Storage Store or the Container Store to buy various kinds of storage (or, if you prefer, “container”) systems. If, however, you need to get the stuff out of your life but you can’t actually part with it, you can rent an off-site storage unit in one of those desolate places just off the exit ramp that resemble a cross between a cemetery and a trailer park. Still our stuff proliferates, and it threatens to bury us—like those freakish folks we enjoy watching on the A&E show “Hoarders.” We have always liked to collect stuff—for the better part of two centuries at any rate. What has changed over the years is the sheer volume of stuff there is to collect, its ready availability, and the expansion of stuff we now see as worthy of keeping in the first place. The impulse to collect, to accumulate, even to hoard has been with us for a long time. After all, those Victorian parlors looked even more cluttered than my living room—but of course they didn’t have the advantage of the Storage Store back then. [End Page 103] If it is true that one person’s tchotchke is another person’s heirloom, then it is also the case that one woman’s cluttered chaos is another’s carefully constructed system. Most people who collect do so according to some notion of system, taxonomy, or classification—however obscure it might be to the rest of us. Years ago, the art historian George Kubler observed that before we can make meaning out of things, we must have form; that we need to create some sort of organizational framework in order to understand the world around us. “We can grasp the universe,” Kubler wrote, “only by simplifying it with ideas of identity by classes, types, and categories.”1 Anthropologist Igor Kopytoff agreed when he wrote, “the human mind has an inherent tendency to impose order upon the chaos of its environment by classifying its contents, and without the classification knowledge of the world. . .would not be possible.”2 In different ways, each of the books under review here wrestles with this issue of categories: how they are defined, what goes into them, and what’s at stake in those parsings. William L. Bird Jr.’s Souvenir Nation and William S. Walker’s A Living Exhibition both examine aspects of the Smithsonian Institution, the nation’s single largest collection of stuff. Teresa Barnett’s Sacred Relics examines personal collections made by nineteenth-century Americans. By anyone’s best guess, the Smithsonian houses nearly 140 million separate objects. That is a staggering figure and one that frankly few of us can actually comprehend. Those 140 million range across every conceivable category of material thing: fine art, decorative arts, biological specimens, detritus from outer space, cores from the bottom of the oceans, pieces of technology, archaeological artifacts, ethnological objects, hand-made crafts and mass-produced consumer items, plus some that defy easy categorization altogether. Like a lock of Sir Walter Scott’s hair. That last is among the featured “souvenirs” in Bird’s charming book. Bird serves as a curator at the National Museum of...

Books in Brief <b>Infographic Designers' Sketchbooks</b> <i>By Steven Heller and Rick Landers</i> Princeton Architectural Press, 2014, 351 pp.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Lauren Bacall, Betty Grable, and Marilyn Monroe, How to Marry a Millionaire, directed by Jean Negulesco (Los Angeles: Twentieth Century Fox, 1953). Hereafter referred to as Millionaire, excepting circumstances requiring the full title. 2. For a good overview of CinemaScope and other technological developments, see Peter Lev, The Fifties: Transforming the Screen 1950–1959 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 107–126. 3. Richard Buskin, Blonde Heat: The Sizzling Screen Career of Marilyn Monroe (New York: Billboard Books, 2001), 155. 4. Released in September 1953, The Robe stars Richard Burton, Michael Rennie, and Victor Mature, and is an epic tale about the men who crucified Christ. 5. Lisa Cohen, “The Horizontal Walk: Marilyn Monroe, CinemaScope, and Sexuality,” The Yale Journal of Criticism 11.1 (1998): 276. 6. “The New Pictures,” Time November 22, 1953, 115–116. 7. Peter Filene, Him/her/self: Gender Identities in Modern America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974, 1998), 193. 8. Richard Maltby, “‘A Brief Romantic Interlude’: Dick and Jane Go to 3 1/2 Seconds of the Classical Hollywood Cinema.” In Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies, eds. David Bordwell and Nöel Carroll (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1996): 443. 9. Maltby notes that he cannot claim with any empirical certainty the existence of these spectators or their readings of the film and thus imagines them as two fictional characters likely to have these readings of the film. Likewise, I cannot claim with any empirical certainty that viewers read Millionaire in the way I outline here, but, based on the historical and cultural documents presented as extra-filmic texts to ground my reading of the film, I can make a strong case for the existence of these readers and the readings I purport. 10. “The New Pictures: How to Marry a Millionaire,” Time November 22, 1953, 116. 11. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988, 2008), 6. 12. Clifford Adams, Preparing for Marriage: A Guide to Marital and Sexual Adjustment (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, 1951), 150. 13. Evelyn Duvall and Reuben Hill, When You Marry, revised edition (New York: Associated Press, 1953), 214. 14. Walt Disney's Cinderella, DVD, directed by Clyde Geronimi and Wilfred Jackson (1950; Walt Disney Productions, 2005). 15. Bosley Crowther, “Of Size and Scope: The Wide Screen Viewed in the Light of ‘How to Marry a Millionaire,’” New York Times 15 November 1953, X1. 16. . Gold-Diggers of 1933 begins with the number “We’re in the Money,” complete with coins as strategically-placed costuming, and features the number “Petting in the Park,” a lighthearted ditty about shy sexual exploration. 17. See Gold-Diggers of 1933, Gold-Diggers of 1935, Gold-Diggers of 1937, Gold-Diggers in Paris. Women in other romances of the 1930s, typically screwball comedies, were wealthy women who did not need a man's money. 18. The Palm Beach Story, directed by Preston Sturges (1942: Paramount); Moon over Miami, directed by Walter Lang (1941: Twentieth Century Fox); and The Lady Eve, directed by Preston Sturges (1941: Paramount). 19. Ernest Burgess and Paul Wallin, Engagement and Marriage (Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1953), 28. 20. Paul H. Landis, “The Changing Family,” Current History 19.109 (1950): 151, emphasis in original. 21. Philip Wylie, Generation of Vipers (Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press, 1942). 22. Douglas Brode, Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment, Austin: U of Texas P, 2005, 186. 23. Pamela Colby O’Brien, “The Happiest Films on Earth: A Textual and Contextual Analysis of Walt Disney's Cinderella and The Little Mermaid,” Women's Studies in Communication 19.2 (Summer 1996), 165. 24. 7. Wylie, Generation, 46, 194. 25. Ibid., 194. 26. Ibid., 207. 27. Ibid., 47. 28. Ibid., 194, 197. 29. “Advertising: There's nothing immoral …,” Time November 16, 1953, 97. 30. “Advertising,” 97. 31. Ibid., 97. 32. Catherine Johnson, “Marriage and Money: How to Marry a Millionaire,” Film Reader 5 (1982): 69–70. 33. Steven Cohan, Masked Men: Masculinity and the Movies in the Fifties (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997), xv. 34. Filene, Him/her/self, 187. 35. Judson T. Landis and Mary Landis. Building a Successful Marriage (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1948), 36. 36. Ernest Burgess and Paul Wallin. Engagement and Marriage (Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1953), 218. 37. Adams, Preparing for Marriage, 186. 38. Landis and Landis, Building, 75. 39. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement and Marriage, 586–7. 40. Ibid., 94. 41. Landis and Landis, Building, 44. 42. Sylvanus Duvall, 101 Questions to Ask Yourself Before You Marry (New York: Association Press, 1954), 21. 43. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement, 7. 44. Ibid., 8. 45. Landis and Landis, Building, 31. 46. W. Lloyd Warner, Social Class in America: A Manual of Procedure for the Measurement of Social Status (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1949), 3. 47. Robert Corber, In the Name of National Security: Hitchcock, Homophobia, and the Political Construction of Gender in Postwar America (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 13. See also Leerom Medevoi, “Identitarian Thought and the Cold War World,” in Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 1–52. 48. Warner, Social Class, 21. 49. S. Duvall, 101 Questions, 76. 50. Filene, Him/her/self, 184. 51. Ibid., 35. 52. Building a Successful Marriage, When You Marry, and Preparing for Marriage, respectively. 53. Ibid., 83, emphasis in original. 54. Duvall and Hill, When You Marry, 219–224. 55. Elisabeth Panttaja, “Going Up in the World: Class in ‘Cinderella,’” Western Folklore 52.1 (1993), 98. 56. “Southwest African Persian Lamb Coat by Tailored Woman,” advertisement, Harper's Bazaar, October 1954. 57. “You’re So Well Put Together in Cashmere Twosomes by Heatherton,” advertisement, Harper's Bazaar, October 1954. 58. Johnson, “Marriage and Money,” 73. 59. Cohen, “The Horizontal Walk,” 277. 60. Teresa de Lauretis, Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film, and Fiction (Bloomington, IN: Indiana UP, 1987), 5. 61. Cohan, Masked Men, 59. 62. See, for example, An American in Paris (1951) and Singin’ in the Rain (1953). 63. For discussion of “feminized” and “masculinized” spectators, see Mulvey, “Afterthoughts on Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” See also Mary Ann Doane, who emphasizes the bisexual oscillation of masculinized and feminized spectator positions for both men and women, which I assume here, in The Desire to Desire: The Woman's Film of the 1940s (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987), 8. 64. Cohan, Masked Men, 10. 65. See Jane Mersky Leder, Thanks for the Memories: Love, Sex, and World War II (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2006), 105–108, for a discussion of World War II nose-art. 66. Cohan, Masked Men, 45. 67. Robert Westbrook, “‘I Want a Girl, Just Like the Girl That Married Harry James’: American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in World War II,” American Quarterly 42.4, December 1990, 596. 68. Cohen, “Horizontal Walk,” 267. 69. Ibid., 280. 70. Nadel, Containment Culture, 131–2. 71. Cohen, “Horizontal Walk,” 273. 72. John Belton, Widescreen Cinema (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 144. 73. Richard Dyer, Heavenly Bodies: Film Stars and Society, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2004), 25–27. 74. Dyer, Heavenly Bodies, 25–27. 75. Bosley Crowther, “The Wide Screen Viewed in the Light of ‘How to Marry a Millionaire,’” The New York Times, November 15, 1953, X1. 76. Richard Mallett, “At the Pictures: How to Marry a Millionaire, Le Fruit Défendu,” Punch, January 27, 1954, 162. 77. Quoted in Buskin, Blonde Heat, 154. 78. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” in Feminism and Film ed. E. Ann Kaplan (New York: Oxford UP, 2000), 40. 79. Cohen, “Horizontal Walk,” 280. 80. Quoted in Richard Buskin, Blonde Heat, 155. 81. Marilyn Monroe's mates, onscreen and off, were often “ordinary” men. In 1959's Some Like it Hot, in a parody of this trend, she says, “men who wear glasses are so gentle, weak, and helpless,” and thus preferable. During a period when masculinity was in crisis, Monroe sent a reassuring message that she preferred feminized men. See also Albert Mobilio's “Scratching Tom Ewell's Itch,” in All the Available Light: A Marilyn Monroe Reader, ed. Yona Zeldis McDonough (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 53–59, for a discussion of this phenomenon in The Seven Year Itch (1955). 82. Cohen, “Horizontal Walk,” 279. 83. William Young and Nancy Young, The 1950s: Popular Culture Through History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 64. 84. Wigley, Mark, “Untitled: The Housing of Gender,” in Sexuality and Space, ed. Beatriz Colomina (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 1992), 341. 85. Belton, Widescreen Cinema, 223. 86. Pola will go “underground” with Denmark, and Loco will join Eben in his little mountain shack.

656 ■ NEW YORK HISTORY it as a dangerous impingement on governmental authority (91). He concludes that the trial reveals much about the colony’s political structure: its governmental framework lagged behind its transformation from a series of trading posts into a settler community. Contrary to how Stuyvesant is usually portrayed, Jacobs cast him as an official whose power and authority were constrained. Other chapters engage with specific legal practices. Martha Dickenson Shattuck examines the “right to petition,” contrasting the practice in the Netherlands and New Netherlands. Tracing the changing use and frequency of petitioning in the colony as its government evolved from corporate to municipal and then to English rule, she concludes, its “usage by the Dutch for granting their rights and privileges was not forgotten” (21). Troy A. McKenzie and Wilson C. Freeman trace an informative history of arbitration from the Board of Nine Men appointed by Stuyvesant in 1647 through the 1920s. As lawyers rather than academic historians, they are concerned with lessons from the Dutch period that might be used to reform the modern American arbitration system. Michael E. Gherke writes on marital law, exploring “similarities and differences in application of Dutch and English Law.” Unlike most of the authors here, Gherke explicitly places himself within the particulars of legal historiography. Opening Statements is a valuable addition to New Netherland scholarship , not only for its contribution from several individual pieces, but also as a whole, in that it is uniquely focused on the role, function and legacy of law and jurisprudence and the history of Dutch New York. Prospect Park: Olmsted & Vaux’s Brooklyn Masterpiece. By David P. Colley. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2013, 207 pages, $45.00 Cloth. Reviewed by Lucas G. Rubin, Assistant Dean for Academic Programs and the Department of Classics, Brooklyn College Of the millions of visitors who enter Brooklyn’s Prospect Park from its main entrance at Grand Army Plaza every year, few likely pay much attention to the statue of James Stranahan that greets them. Needless to say, Book Reviews 657 this is a lamentable turn of events for the individual who was one of the most important figures of nineteenth century Brooklyn, and without whose efforts a park on the scale executed might have never been undertaken. In part, this circumstance is a reflection of the surprisingly limited amount of formal inquiry into Brooklyn’s history. Though Brooklyn’s two decade long renaissance—which has seen its evolution from a second choice residential borough to premier destination and global brand—has helped turn the tide, much remains to be considered. One such recent contribution —and a welcome one at that—is David Colley’s 2013 examination of Prospect Park, the borough’s 528-acre central sylvan enclave. Colley is primarily a military historian, having authored several books on the actions of the U.S. Army in Europe in 1944–5. Though this offering is something of a departure, it shares the same sense of context and purpose that characterize his previous works. In this regard, Prospect Park’s eclectic mix of material—historical images, archival maps, plans, stunning contemporary photography (captured by the author’s wife, Elizabeth Keegin Colley), as well as reminisces by several leading civic leaders—helps vivify the subject matter, connecting its history with that of its resurgent popularity . Colley’s approach is chronological, with specific topics (e.g. architecture, sports, recreation) incorporated at appropriate junctures. The book opens with a brief natural history of Brooklyn, utilizing the area of the park as a point of reference. Topography was to play a critical role in the park’s evolution, in part because it had been the location of a number of major engagements during the Battle of Brooklyn (August 27, 1776). Several key areas—Lookout and Redoubt Hills, and Battle Pass—were subsequently incorporated into the park’s design and, as Colley notes, “it is in today’s Prospect Park that we find the only Revolutionary War battle site that still exists almost as it was in 1776” (29). Impetus to build a park was born of the great changes that came in the decades following independence: “in 1840 Brooklyn covered twelve square miles and had a...

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements The preparation of this essay was enabled by a University of California, Berkeley Faculty Research Grant. Special thanks to Professor Xili Han of the University of Beijing. Notes 1. Martin Heidegger, The Question of Being (London: Vision Press Limited, 1956), p. 19. 2. John Brinckerhoff Jackson, ‘The word itself’, in Discovering the Vernacular Landscape (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 5. Emphasis mine. 3. Ian Nairn, The American Landscape (Random House: New York, 1965), p. 10. 4. Paul Ricoeur, History and Truth (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1961), p. 277. 5. Karl Kullmann, ‘Postmodern transformations to the paradox of place’, in The Inaugural Australasian Landscape Architecture Design Workshop (Brisbane: QUT Press, 1996), p. 34. 6. George Seddon, Sense of Place (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1972). Christian Norberg-Shulz, Genius Loci (New York: Rizzoli, 1979). Jackson, ‘The word itself’. Edward S. Casey, The Fate of Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). 7. The design workshop was convened and sponsored by the University of Southern California American Academy in China. Henceforth, I use ‘Expo’ to refer specifically to the Xi'an Horticultural Expo, and ‘expo’ to refer to horticultural expos in general. 8. Bernard St-Denis, ‘Just what is a garden?’, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 27/1, 2007, pp. 61–76. 9. Donald Appleyard, ‘Understanding professional media: issues, theory, and a research agenda’, in Irwin Altman and Joachim F. Wohlwill, eds, Human Behavior and Environment (New York: Plenum Press, 1977), p. 58. 10. For example, Kevin Lynch's urban imaging methodology has been critiqued for omitting the influence that media etc. exerts in extending imaging beyond the confines of the immediate visual and proprioceptive senses. See Mark Gottdiener and Alexandros Lagopoulos, ‘Introduction’, in Gottdiener and Lagopoulos, eds, The City and the Sign (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986). 11. Robert B. Riley, ‘From sacred grove to Disney World: the search for garden meaning’, Landscape Journal, 7/2, 1988, pp. 136–147. 12. He Shanan, ‘Foreword’, in Donata Valentien and Christoph Valentien, eds, Shanghai: Neuer Botanischer Garten/New Botanic Garden (Berlin: Jovis, 2008). 13. Adriaan Geuze of West 8; Benedetta Tagliabue of EMBT; Catherine Mosbach of Mosbach Paysagistes; Eelco Hooftman of Gross.Max; Martin Rein-Cano of Topotek 1; Stig L. Andersson of SLA; Martha Schwartz of MSP; Wang Xiangrong of Atelier DYJG; and Vladimir Sitta of Terragram. 14. Walter Benjamin, Moscow Diary (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, c. 1986), p. 25. 15. Martin Gardner, ‘Labyrinthian way’, The New York Times Book Review, July 27, 1975, p. 10. 16. Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 79. 17. Robert Harbison, Eccentric Spaces (New York: Knopf, 1977), p. 6. 18. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), p. 185. 19. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), p. 56. 20. Buckminster Fuller, ‘Fluid geography’, in The Buckminster Fuller Reader (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), p. 143. 21. Brian Massumi, ‘Sensing the virtual, building the insensible’, Architectural Design Profile, 133, 1998, pp. 16–24. 22. Gary Shapiro, Earthwards (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), p. 91. 23. In Stephen Bann, introduction and translation, ‘The landscape approach of Bernard Lassus’, Journal of Garden History, 3/2, 1983, pp. 79–107. Bernard Lassus. The Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998). 24. Stephen Bann, ‘From Captain Cook to Neil Armstrong: colonial exploration and the structure of landscape’, in, Simon Pugh, ed., Reading Landscape (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1990), p. 225. 25. Riley, ‘From sacred grove to Disney World’, pp. 136–147. 26. In noting the ‘closure of the map’, Hakim Bey observed that the last patch of ‘untaken’ Earth was claimed by a nation-state in 1899, making the twentieth century the first without terra incognita. Hakim Bey, The Temporary Autonomous Zone (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 1985), p. 100. 27. Bann, ‘The landscape approach of Bernard Lassus’. Lassus. The Landscape Approach. 28. Roberto Casati and Achille C. Varzi, Holes and Other Superficialities (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), p. 25. 29. Ibid., pp. 172–173. 30. Conceived as a design workshop entitled ‘Creative Nature’ by the University of Southern California American Academy in China, participating universities comprised: Peking University; University of Hong Kong; Feng Chia University; Columbia University; University of Toronto; University of California, Berkeley; the Architectural Association; and Universidad Torcuato de Tella. 31. Shusaku Arakawa and Madeline Gins, Architecture: Sites of Reversible Destiny (London: Academy Editions, 1994), p. 18. 32. Phillip Ball, The Self-Made Tapestry (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 158. 33. Shusaku Arakawa and Madeline Gins, ‘The tentative constructed plan as intervening device’, Architecture and Urbanism, December, 1991, pp. 48–57. 34. Sun Tzu, The Art of War (New York: SoHo Press, c. 2011). 35. Massumi, ‘Sensing the virtual, building the insensible’, pp. 16–24. 36. Shusaku Arakawa and Madeline Gins, ‘Gifu — critical resemblance house and elliptical field’, Architectural Design Profile, 121, 1996, pp. 27–34. 37. Bernard Cache, Earth Moves (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), p. 40. 38. Jorge Luis Borges, ‘The garden of forking paths’, in Ficciones (New York: Grove Press, 1962, translated from the Spanish, 1956). 39. Jane Gillette, ‘Can gardens mean?’, Landscape Journal, 24/1, 2005, pp. 85–97. See also John Dixon Hunt. The Afterlife of Gardens (London: Reaktion Books, 2004). 40. Marc Treib, ‘Must landscapes mean?: approaches to significance in recent landscape architecture’, Landscape Journal, 14/2, 1995, pp. 46–62. 41. Ibid. 42. Robert Smithson, ‘A sedimentation of the mind’, in Nancy Holt, ed., The Writings of Robert Smithson (New York: New York University Press, 1979), p. 90. 43. Bernard St-Denis, ‘Just what is a garden?’, pp. 61–76. 44. Peter Marcuse, ‘Walls of fear and walls of support’, in Nan Ellin, ed., Architecture of Fear (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997), p. 103. 45. Donata Valentien and Christoph Valentien, ‘The Chenshan Botanic Garden in Shanghai’, in Donata Valentien and Christoph Valentien, eds, Shanghai: Neuer Botanischer Garten/New Botanic Garden (Berlin: Jovis, 2008), p. 39. 46. Rob Aben and Saskia de Wit, The Enclosed Garden (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 1999), p. 10. 47. John Dixon Hunt, Greater Perfections (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 23. 48. Hunt, Greater Perfections, pp. 20 & 24. 49. Bianca Maria Rinaldi, The Chinese Garden (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2011), p. 14. 50. Stanislaus Fung, ‘Here and there in Yuan Ye’, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 19/1, 1999, pp. 36–45. 51. See Christophe Girot, ‘Towards a general theory of landscape’, in, Topos, 28, 1999, p. 33. 52. St-Denis, ‘Just what is a garden?’. St-Denis references John Dixon Hunt, The Picturesque Garden in Europe (London: Thames & Hudson, 2002), pp. 87–89. 53. Aben and de Wit, The Enclosed Garden, p. 10. John Dixon Hunt, ‘Introduction: the immediate garden and the larger landscape’, Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, 19/1, 1999, pp. 3–6. 54. Kenneth Helphand, [untitled], in Mark Francis and Randolph T. Hester Jr., eds, The Meaning of Gardens (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), p. 104. 55. Xi'an World University Park (University of Southern California American Academy in China, unpublished design brief, 2009). 56. Rinaldi, The Chinese Garden, p. 12. 57. Michael Sorkin, ‘Introduction: variations on a theme park’, in Michael Sorkin, ed., Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. xii. 58. Cache, Earth Moves, p. 109. 59. See Aben and de Wit, The Enclosed Garden. 60. This is particularly true of the University Gardens that sought to amplify the ‘other’ senses; the question is whether the visual was restricted enough to allow the repressed senses to blossom. 61. Randolph T. Hester Jr., ‘Garden as metaphor for landscape architecture’, in Mark Francis and Hester, eds, Meanings of the Garden (Davis, CA: Center for Design Research, 1987). 62. In Bann, ‘The Landscape approach of Bernard Lassus’. 63. James Corner, ‘Ecology and landscape as agents of creativity’, in George F. Thompson and Frederick R. Steiner, eds, Ecological Design and Planning (New York: Wiley, 1997), p. 82. Also referencing James Corner, ‘Landscape as question’, Landscape Journal, 11/2, 1992, p. 164. 64. Following J. B. Jackson's articulation of landscape as always culturally determined, Richard Ingersoll argued that landscape is framed more by the mind than physical obstacles. Richard Ingersoll, ‘Landscapegoat’, in Architecture of Fear, p. 254. 65. In the case of the Xi'an Expo, the organizing agency granted free entry to all Xi'an residents; an egalitarian decree to be sure, if indeed those of lower socioeconomic status could afford to take the leisure time off from the typical seven day working week. 66. Horace Walpole, History of the Modern Taste in Gardening (New York: Ursus Press, c. 1995), p. 43. As referenced in John Dixon Hunt and Peter Willis, The Genius of The Place (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), p. 91 and p. 313. 67. See Valentien and Valentien, Shanghai: Neuer Botanischer Garten/New Botanic Garden. 68. John Prest, The Garden of Eden (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1981), p. 92. 69. James Corner, ‘Botanical urbanism: a new project for the botanical garden at the University of Puerto Rico’, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 25/2, 2005, pp. 123–143. 70. Shanan, ‘Foreword’. 71. Lassus asked whether our world has become the garden that modernity promised: ‘As the world has grown smaller, losing the immeasurable dimension of its landscapes which have submitted to the measurement of machines, techniques and apparatuses, it should have been transformed into a Garden of Delights or a Garden of Eden. But has it been?’ In Bann, ‘The Landscape approach of Bernard Lassus’. 72. Hui Zou, ‘Deep and distant ethics: the fictional approach in Chinese gardens and urbanism’, in Reconciling Poetics and Ethics in Architecture (Montreal: McGill University School of Architecture, 2007), available at: http://www.arch.mcgill.ca/theory/conference/papers/.

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