Primula Vulgaris Research Articles

Unveiling the Genome-Wide Consequences of Range Expansion and Mating System Transitions in Primula vulgaris.

Genetic diversity is heterogeneously distributed among populations of the same species, due to the joint effects of multiple demographic processes, including range contractions and expansions, and mating systems shifts. Here, we ask how both processes shape genomic diversity in space and time in the classical Primula vulgaris model. This perennial herb originated in the Caucasus region and was hypothesized to have expanded westward following glacial retreat in the Quaternary. Moreover, this species is a long-standing model for mating system transitions, exemplified by shifts from heterostyly to homostyly. Leveraging a high-quality reference genome of the closely related Primula veris and whole-genome resequencing data from both heterostylous and homostylous individuals from populations encompassing a wide distribution of P. vulgaris, we reconstructed the demographic history of P. vulgaris. Results are compatible with the previously proposed hypothesis of range expansion from the Caucasus region approximately 79,000 years ago and suggest later shifts to homostyly following rather than preceding postglacial colonization of England. Furthermore, in accordance with population genetic theoretical predictions, both processes are associated with reduced genetic diversity, increased linkage disequilibrium, and reduced efficacy of purifying selection. A novel result concerns the contrasting effects of range expansion versus shift to homostyly on transposable elements, for the former, process is associated with changes in transposable element genomic content, while the latter is not. Jointly, our results elucidate how the interactions among range expansion, transitions to selfing, and Quaternary climatic oscillations shape plant evolution.

From small‐scale studies to an encompassing view: Inhibiting inflammation and clinically relevant enzymes with various extracts of Primula vulgaris using in vitro and in silico techniques

AbstractThe genus Primula holds great importance as a source of traditional remedies in various folk medicine systems. In the present study, we investigated the chemical composition and biological properties of different extracts (ethyl acetate, ethanol, ethanol/water, and water) of aerial parts and rhizomes of Primula vulgaris. To determine the chemical profile, the extracts were analyzed using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography‐high‐resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC‐HRMS) technique and flavonoids were a major group in this profile. The antioxidant capacity was demonstrated by in vitro chemical tests and in general the ethanol/water extract was found to be the most potent. Enzyme inhibition was studied against various enzymes and ethanol and ethanol/water extracts were more active than others. To assess the anti‐inflammatory potential of the extracts at the molecular level, human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In vitro experiments showed that the levels of nuclear factor kappa B (NFKB), receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE), activator protein‐1 (AP‐1), interleukin 6 (IL‐6), interleukin 17 (IL‐17) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‐alpha were significantly reduced after treatment with the tested extracts. In addition, the extracts showed an inhibitory effect on the enzymes collagenase, elastase, and hyaluronidase, which are involved in the inflammatory process and destabilization of the extracellular matrix (ECM). P. vulgaris has been observed to modulate matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) synthesis by decreasing the concentration of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) during LPS‐induced inflammation. This study also examined the molecular binding and dynamic behavior of various enzymes and proteins associated with skin and infections using ligands derived from the tested extracts. Simulations with AutoDock Vina V1.1.2 and GROMACS 2023.1 showed that isoquercetin in particular showed superior performance in interactions with hyaluronidase. These findings are important for the development of potential therapeutic strategies for skin health and infection control. In summary, P. vulgaris can be considered as an important source of natural bioactive compounds for the development of effective health‐promoting applications in nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics

Influence of temperature conditions of the environment on the dynamics of collecting bee pollen and flower pollen by honey bees

The study conducted at the apiary of the National Scientific Center «P.I. Prokopovych Institute of Beekeeping» in Hadiach, Poltava region, from 2021 to 2023 investigates the dynamics of bee pollen collecting by honey bees of the Ukrainian steppe breed of the Hadiach type. This research focuses on understanding how weather conditions in the forest-steppe zone impact the mass, volume, and size of bee pollen, as well as the botanical composition of the collected pollen. The primary objective of this research is to analyze how different weather conditions influence the collection of bee pollen by honey bees. Specifically, the study aims to assess how variations in temperature, humidity, and other weather factors affect the quantity and quality of pollen collected, and how these factors interact with the flowering periods of key nectar plants. The study utilized hanging pollen collectors to gather pollen from bee colonies between 8 AM and 2 PM. The botanical origin of the pollen was determined through microscopic analysis and international palynological databases. The research focused on several common nectar plants, including red clover (Trifolium pratense), common primrose (Primula vulgaris), cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), common agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria), field thistle (Cirsium arvense), and common burdock (Carduus acanthoides). Weather conditions were classified into favorable (temperatures of 18–25°C and relative humidity of 57–72%) and unfavorable (cloudy days with northern winds, temperatures below 15°C or above 28°C, and humidity levels outside the 57–72% range). The research revealed that the average mass of bee pollen collected per season varied between 6.3 and 6.6 kg per bee colony. The study found that different plants responded differently to weather condi­tions. For instance, the mass of pollen from red clover ranged from 8.3 to 12.0 mg under favorable conditions, while field thistle showed a decrease in pollen mass during unfavorable conditions. Pollen collection began in mid-April and continued until mid-August. During unfavorable weather conditions, there was a noticeable reduction in pollen mass, which was attributed to lower pollen availability. However, some plants showed better pollen production under adverse conditions. The spring peak in pollen collection, associated with active colony growth, was also influenced by the less diverse summer flora. Temperature data for 2021–2023 indicated that the most favorable conditions for pollen collection varied annually. For example, the cool spring of 2021 delayed bee colony development, while 2022 experienced normal weather conditions. In contrast, 2023 saw active pollen collection during acacia blooming but a reduction duringlime blooming due to insufficient pollen. The study underscores the importance of considering a comprehensive range of weather conditions when evaluating bee colony productivity. The findings highlight that both temperature and humidity significantly impact pollen collection. The results suggest that beekeepers need to account for these variables in their management practices to optimize pollen collection. Further research should explore the interactions between different weather factors and their combined effects on bee foraging behavior and pollen production. Additionally, studies could investigate how changes in climate over longer periods affect bee colony performance and pollen dynamics, providing insights for developing adaptive strategies in beekeeping.

Over the hills and far away: phylogeography and demographic migration history of a dispersal-restricted primrose (Primula vulgaris)

Over the hills and far away: phylogeography and demographic migration history of a dispersal-restricted primrose (Primula vulgaris)

Genomic analyses elucidate S-locus evolution in response to intra-specific losses of distyly in Primula vulgaris.

Distyly, a floral dimorphism that promotes outcrossing, is controlled by a hemizygous genomic region known as the S-locus. Disruptions of genes within the S-locus are responsible for the loss of distyly and the emergence of homostyly, a floral monomorphism that favors selfing. Using whole-genome resequencing data of distylous and homostylous individuals from populations of Primula vulgaris and leveraging high-quality reference genomes of Primula we tested, for the first time, predictions about the evolutionary consequences of transitions to selfing on S-genes. Our results reveal a previously undetected structural rearrangement in CYPᵀ associated with the shift to homostyly and confirm previously reported, homostyle-specific, loss-of-function mutations in the exons of the S-gene CYPᵀ. We also discovered that the promoter and intronic regions of CYPᵀ in distylous and homostylous individuals are conserved, suggesting that down-regulation of CYPᵀ via mutations in its promoter and intronic regions is not a cause of the shift to homostyly. Furthermore, we found that hemizygosity is associated with reduced genetic diversity in S-genes compared with their paralogs outside the S-locus. Additionally, the shift to homostyly lowers genetic diversity in both the S-genes and their paralogs, as expected in primarily selfing plants. Finally, we tested, for the first time, long-standing theoretical models of changes in S-locus genotypes during early stages of the transition to homostyly, supporting the assumption that two copies of the S-locus might reduce homostyle fitness.

First Report of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ (16SrI-B) Associated with Phyllody Disease of Moth Bean in World

Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia), a drought and heat-resistant legume from the Fabaceae family, is commonly cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions of the Indian subcontinent In September 2022, phyllody symptoms (Figure 1) were observed on 50-days-old moth bean plants at the ICAR-NBPGR research farm in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. The disease incidence ranged from 10 to 25%. To investigate the cause, ten symptomatic VacoJod (1-10) and ten asymptomatic VacoJod (11-20) Vigna aconitifolia plants were collected. Insect populations were also collected from the vicinity using the sweep-net method to examine the role of insect vectors. The leafhopper was identified based on morphological characterization as Empoasca sp. at the Division of Entomology, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi. DNA was extracted from midribs of all collected plants and the Empoasca sp., using Qiagen DNeasy Plant Mini Kit and Blood and Tissue kit, respectively. Nested polymerase chain reaction (Nested-PCR) with universal primers P1/P7 and R16F2n/R16R2 (Deng and Hiruki, 1991; Gundersen and Lee, 1996), and secA gene primers (secAfor1/secArev3 and secAfor2/secArev3) (Hodgetts et al., 2008) were employed to determine phytoplasma species association. Out of the 10 symptomatic plants and 10 leafhopper samples, 6 leafhopper samples and all symptomatic plants produced expected band sizes for the 16S rRNA (approximately 1.25 kb) and secA gene (480 bp). The PCR products were cloned, sequenced, and sequences (two each from moth bean and leafhopper) were submitted to NCBI GenBank with accession numbers OP941130, OP941132, OP941133 and OP941134 for 16S rRNA and OP958868, OP958869, OP958870, and OP958871 for secA gene sequences. Nucleotide BLAST analysis of 16S rRNA sequences revealed a minimum of 99.92% similarity with 'Primula acaulis' yellows phytoplasma (KJ494340) from Czech Republic. All 100% hits corresponded to 16SrI-B group phytoplasmas, for example rapeseed phyllody phytoplasma (CP055264) from Taiwan. Similarly, nucleotide BLAST analysis of secA sequences revealed a minimum of 99.15% sequence similarity with Paulownia witches'-broom phytoplasma (secA) (OP124308) from China. All 100% hits were of 16SrI-B group phytoplasmas, for example Ageratum conyzoides yellowing phytoplasma (MW401697, secA) from India. Phylogenetic analysis using MEGA11 (Tamura et al., 2021) clustered the moth bean and Empoasca sp. phytoplasma strains with 16SrI-B phytoplasma reference strains. iPhyClassifier tool classified the 16S rRNA gene sequences into 16Sr group I, subgroup B, with a similarity coefficient of 1.0 (Figure 2a, 2b). This marks the first report of the association of 'Ca. P. asteris' 16SrI-B related phytoplasma strain with moth bean plants globally. The 16SrI-B phytoplasma strain is prevalent in various crops in India (Singh et al., 2023). This report emphasizes the epidemiological studies and highlights the need for further research and preventive measures to manage the spread of this phytoplasma strain, which could impact crop production and food security in hot and dry regions.

Screening of Antimicrobial, Antibiofilm, and Cytotoxic Activities of Some Medicinal Plants from Balıkesir Province, Türkiye: Potential Effects of Allium paniculatum Flower.

Plant extracts are important natural resources that may have antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects against pathogens. This study was conducted to investigate the in vitro antimicrobial activities of methanol extracts of some medicinal plants (Achillea nobilis subspecies neilreichii (A. Kern.) Velen., Aetheorhiza bulbosa (L.) Cass, Allium paniculatum L, Asphodelus aestivus Brot., Ballota nigra L., Cistus laurifolius L., Cistus salviifolius L., Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick and Wilkin, Galium verum L., Hypericum triquetrifolium Turra, Paliurus spina-christi Mill., Primula vulgaris Huds. subspecies rubra (Sm.) Arcang., Ranunculus arvensis L. and Teucrium polium L.) from Balıkesir province in Türkiye. Preliminary antimicrobial activity screening was conducted for all extracts. Antibiofilm activity studies were conducted on mature Candida albicans biofilms. Moreover, the cytotoxicities of A. paniculatum flower extract on A549 and Vero cell lines were determined using a colorimetric tetrazolium-based assay. A. paniculatum flower, P. vulgaris root, C. laurifolius, C. salviifolius, and A. nobilis displayed good activity [minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC): 9.75, 156, 312, 312 and 312 μg/mL, respectively] against C. albicans American Type Culture Collection 10231. Biofilm studies were conducted on these plant extracts. The methanol extract of A. paniculatum flower decreased the number of C. albicans [colony-forming unit (CFU)/mL] in mature biofilm statistically at 32 x MIC and higher concentrations (p < 0.01). A. paniculatum flower extract had a cytotoxic effect (killing more than 50% of cells) at high concentrations, and its effect on Vero cells was similar to that on A549 cells. This study demonstrated the importance of the methanol extract of A. paniculatum flower as a natural alternative against C. albicans infections, including biofilms.

Several hybrids from Papuk – rare or new taxa in the national flora

Four hybrid taxa, previously rarely, or now for the first time recorded in Croatia, observed during the spring of 2020 and 2022 on Mt. Papuk, are presented. A hybrid of Primula vulgaris Huds. and P. veris L. called P. × polyantha Mill. is known as an ornamental plant, which comes in a whole palette of colors, but the occurrence of spontaneous hybrids that occur in nature in Croatia has been discussed in print only once, by Degen in 1937. Ophrys × hybrida Pokorny ex Rchb. f. is a cross between O. sphegodes Mill.and O. insectifera L., and it has never previously been recorded in Croatia. Orchis × beyrichii (Rchb. f.) A. Kern. and O. × angusticruris Franch are rarely recorded hybrids in which O. simia Lam. participates, the first by crossing with the species O. militaris L., and the second with O. purpurea Huds.

Comprehensive assessment of genetic variation in native heterostylous primrose genotypes of Türkiye

Primula vulgaris L. is an essential species of ornamental plant value with attractive flowers distributed in humid and cold regions. It spreads around Giresun, Gümüşhane, Trabzon, and Rize in Türkiye’s Eastern Black Sea region. Through molecular and morphological markers, this study determined the genetic diversity and similarity levels of Primula genotypes sampled from different areas (Samsun, Trabzon, Ordu, and Giresun). Variation was determined regarding morphological characteristics, and that plant shape, flower, and leaf properties were highly variable. Molecular data support morphological features. Thirteen ISSR primers determined the dimensions of genetic diversity, and the genotypes’ similarity indexes were between 0.70 and 0.92. It is seen that there is no clustering in the two- and three-dimensional graphics created in line with the genetic parameters, and the genotypes are distributed. Also, plant characteristics were correlated with the ISSR data, and many DNA profiles were detected. This study has characterized Primula genotypes that naturally spread in the Black Sea region of Türkiye. It is a guiding study for transferring some observed properties to culture varieties.

The genomes of Darwin's primroses reveal chromosome-scale adaptive introgression and differential permeability of species boundaries.

Introgression is an important source of genetic variation that can determine species adaptation to environmental conditions. Yet, definitive evidence of the genomic and adaptive implications of introgression in nature remains scarce. The widespread hybrid zones of Darwin's primroses (Primula elatior, Primula veris, and Primula vulgaris) provide a unique natural laboratory for studying introgression in flowering plants and the varying permeability of species boundaries. Through analysis of 650 genomes, we provide evidence of an introgressed genomic region likely to confer adaptive advantage in conditions of soil toxicity. We also document unequivocal evidence of chloroplast introgression, an important precursor to species-wide chloroplast capture. Finally, we provide the first evidence that the S-locus supergene, which controls heterostyly in primroses, does not introgress in this clade. Our results contribute novel insights into the adaptive role of introgression and demonstrate the importance of extensive genomic and geographical sampling for illuminating the complex nature of species boundaries.

The ameliorative effect of Primula vulgaris on cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats and quantification of its phenolic components using LC-ESI-MS/MS

Cisplatin (CDDP) is an important chemotherapeutic agent, accumulation of which in kidney tissue causes nephrotoxicity and renal failure. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time in the literature, the protective effect of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) extract of Primula vulgaris leaf (PVE) against CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity in rats.The PVE content was characterized using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Nephrotoxicity was induced with a single dose of CDDP (7.5 mg/kg). Thirty female Wistar-Albino rats were divided into five groups (control, DMSO, CDDP (7.5 mg/kg), CDDP + PVE (25 mg/kg), and CDDP + PVE (50 mg/kg)). Biochemical and histopathological analyses were then performed.Rutin, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid and protocatechuic acid were identified as major components of PVE. Total antioxidant status and glutathione (GSH) values increased significantly in the serum samples from the treatment group compared to the CDDP group, while blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, oxidative stress index, malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), total oxidant status, and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) values decreased significantly. GSH levels increased significantly in the treatment group compared to the CDDP group, while TNF-α, caspase-3, 8-OHdG, MDA levels and damage scores decreased significantly.In conclusion, PVE exhibited strong protective effects through its anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities against nephrotoxicity and oxidative damage caused by CDDP in rats.

Characterization of Xanthomonas hortorum isolates causing leaf spot on Primula vulgaris

AbstractThe bacterial leaf spot of Primula vulgaris was reported from forest locations in Mazandaran province, Iran in 1995. The causative bacterium was initially identified as Xanthomonas campestris based on sequences of ITS and 16S rRNA regions. On the basis of sequences of gyrB and dnaK housekeeping genes, the isolates resembled strains of Xanthomonas hortorum. The present study was performed to clarify the taxonomic status of the incitant bacterium. Samples of P. vulgaris with leaf spot symptoms were collected from the Darabkola forest (Mazandaran province) and the bacterial strains were isolated on plates of glucose nutrient agar. Some isolates only induced hypersensitive reaction on geranium (Pelargonium × hortorum) leaves but a few isolates incited leaf spot symptoms when inoculated on P. vulgaris, P. heterochroma and P. × polyantha plants. The isolates were Gram stain, oxidase and urease negative but positive in tests for catalase and hydrolysis of gelatin, aesculin and Tween 80. Several unique nonpathogenic isolates were recovered with varying carbon source utilization profiles and different molecular features, including distinct ERIC‐PCR profiles. Representative gyrB, rpoD, dnaK and fyuA housekeeping genes were amplified by PCR and sequenced for comparison with Xanthomonas species in the GenBank database using maximum‐likelihood, maximum‐parsimony and Bayesian algorithms to construct phylogenetic trees. The pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains were closely related to X. hortorum pathovars. Therefore, it is likely that these isolates belong to a new pathovar of X. hortorum. Based on previous studies and our findings, we propose naming the strain causing primrose leaf spot as X. hortorum pv. primulicola.

Hot and cold drying of edible flowers affect metabolite patterns of extracts and decoctions

ABSTRACT Edible flowers are rich in bioactive compounds and pigments that are on increasing demand in nutraceutical, medicinal, food, cosmetic and dyeing industries. This study evaluated the anthocyanins, phenolics and antioxidant activity of eight edible flowers (Bellis perennis L., Centaurea cyanus L., Dianthus carthusianorum L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Primula vulgaris Huds., Rosa canina L., Rosa pendulina L. and Viola odorata L.) after 24 h of hot drying (50 °C; natural convection stove) or cold drying (CD) (22 °C; heat-pump drying system). The hot-dried and cold-dried materials were then used to prepare ultrasound-assisted extracts, which are used as food additives or as a source of natural colourants, or decoctions (DECs), which are used for herbal teas. The edible flower UAEs and DECs had high amounts of anthocyanins (up to 3,284.6 mg C3G · 100 g-1), phenolics (up to 9,034 mg · 100 g-1) and antioxidant activity (866 μmol TE · g-1, 4,901 mmol Fe2+ · kg-1), with roses having the highest amount. The anthocyanin content and phenolic profile (flavonols, benzoic acids, cinnamic acids and flavanols) of edible flowers are found to be affected by drying and extraction methods. For decoctions, CD was found to be the most efficient drying method for all the parameters. For UAEs, CD resulted in a higher anthocyanin content, while hot drying resulted in a higher phenolic content, particularly flavanols. Overall, the studied edible flower extracts and decoctions can contribute to healthy and coloured substances, which can be used for designing innovative natural products. Rosa pendulina and R. canina are the most promising sources.

Cool‐Blooded Bees for Cool‐Weather Flowers

Photo 1. The Sierra de Cazorla mountains in southeastern Spain, where the study was carried out. The area is characterized by rugged topography, high habitat and species diversity, and outstanding degree of preservation of natural vegetation. Photo credit: Carlos M. Herrera. Photo 2. As in many other mountain areas from mid-latitudes of the Holarctic realm, the flowering season in plant communities of the Sierra de Cazorla starts well before the end of winter, when ambient temperatures are still cool even in the clearest, sunniest days. Some plants living at high elevations, as the daffodil Narcissus longispathus (Amaryllidaceae) shown in the picture, sometimes have to face the latest snowfalls of the winter while already bearing open flowers. Photo credit: Carlos M. Herrera. Photo 3. A sampler of early-blooming plants from the Sierra de Cazorla area having mining bees of the genus Andrena as their main pollinators. Clockwise from the top left (percentage of bee pollinators contributed by species of Andrena shown in parentheses): Iberis carnosa (Brassicaceae, 100%); Hepatica nobilis (Ranunculaceae, 80%); Crocus nevadensis (Iridaceae, 79%); Draba hispanica (Brassicaceae, 71%); Narcissus hedraeanthus (Amaryllidaceae, 67%); and Fritillaria lusitanica (Liliaceae, 63%). Photo credit: Carlos M. Herrera. Photo 4. The genus Andrena is the second largest genus of bees, with ~1,600 described species worldwide. They pollinate many wild plants in boreal and temperate habitats of Eurasia and North America, particularly species flowering in winter and early spring. Out of the nearly 100 Andrena species recorded to date from the Sierra de Cazorla region, 30 were included in our study on their thermal ecology. Some of these are featured in these pictures. Clockwise from the top left: Andrena baetica (on Ornithogalum umbellatum, Asparagaceae); Andrena bicolor (on Primula acaulis, Primulaceae); Andrena congruens (on Eryngium campestre, Apiaceae); Andrena fulva (on Rosmarinus officinalis, Lamiaceae); Andrena lagopus (on Diplotaxis catholica, Brassicaceae); Andrena nigroaenea (on Erodium cheilanthifolium, Geraniaceae); Andrena sardoa (on Asphodelus cerasiferus, Xanthorrhoeaceae); and Andrena trimmerana (on Berberis hispanica, Berberidaceae). Photo credit: Carlos M. Herrera. These photographs illustrate the article “Seasonality of pollinators in Mediterranean montane habitats: cool-blooded bees for early-blooming plants” by Carlos M. Herrera, Alejandro Núñez, Luis O. Aguado and Conchita Alonso published in Ecological Monographs. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1570

Primula vulgaris'ten Sentezlenen Gümüş Nanopartiküllerin Antimikrobiyal ve Antioksidan Potansiyeli

In this study, biosynthesis and in vitro phytochemical composition, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of silver nanoparticles were investigated by using aqueous leaf, flower and root extracts of Primula vulgaris (P. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). The synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were confirmed by color conversion and ultraviolet-visible (UV-visible) spectrophotometry. The appearance of a dark brown color and a UV absorption spectrum range at 440 nm confirmed the synthesized silver nanoparticles. The antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized from the leaf of P. vulgaris; S. aureus 25±1, S. epidermidis 20±1, P. aeruginosa 20±1, A. hydrophila 21±1, C. albicans 25±1, C. tropicalis 25±1, C. parapsilosis 22±1 and C. glabrata 20±1 mm zone diameter was determined. The most antimicrobial effect of P. vulgaris leaf aqueous extract; S. aureus 20±1, S. epidermidis 18±1, A.hydrophila 15±1, P. aeruginosa 12±2, C. albicans 18±1, C. glabrata 18±1, C.tropicalis15±2, and C. parapsilosis 15±2 mm zone diameter was revealed. The presence of flavonoids, terpenoids, protein, and carbohydrates was found to be higher in silver nanoparticles synthesized in the flower part of P. vulgaris, according to phytochemical screening. While saponins were detected in P. vulgaris root extracts, tannins and protein were detected in the leaf extract. The flower had the highest total phenolic extract content of the silver nanoparticle (29.08±0 mg GAE/g DW), while the leaf and root had the lowest total phenolic content of 9.06±0.5 and 8.64±3.3 mg GAE/g DW, respectively. The flower had the highest total phenolic extract content of the plant aqueous extracts (25.10±0.2 mg GAE/g DW), while the leaf and root had the lowest (8.28±0.5 and 5.20±0.0 mg GAE/g DW, respectively).The DPPH (1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil) assay was used to assess free radical scavenging activity. The antioxidant activity of AgNPs biosynthesized using P. vulgaris flower extract was 90.6 %, while P. vulgaris flower aqueous extracts were 86.3 %. This can be concluded that silver nanoparticles synthesized using P. vulgaris flower extract are useful in the preparation of pharmacologically useful drugs.

Bioactive Saponins of Primula vulgaris Huds. Promote Wound Healing through Inhibition of Collagenase and Elastase Enzymes: in Vivo, in Vitro and in Silico Evaluations.

Primula vulgaris Huds. leaves and roots were used to treat skin damage and inflammation in Anatolian Folk Medicine. This study aimed to assess the ethnopharmacological use of the plant using in vivo, in vitro, and in silico test models. Linear incision and circular excision wound models were used to determine the in vivo wound-healing potential of the plant extracts and fractions. In vitro assays including hyaluronidase, collagenase, and elastase inhibitory activities were carried out for the active compounds to discover their activity pathways. Structure-based molecular modeling was performed to understand inhibitory mechanisms regarding collagenase and elastase at the molecular level. The butanol fraction of the roots of P. vulgaris showed the highest wound-healing activity. Through activity-guided fractionation and isolation techniques, primulasaponin I (1) and primulasaponin I methyl ester (2) were stated as the major active compounds. These compounds exerted their activities through the inhibition of collagenase and elastase enzymes. Primulasaponin I methyl ester isolated from butanol fraction was found to be the strongest agent, especially with the values of 29.65 % on collagenase and 38.92 % on elastase inhibitory activity assays, as well as molecular docking studies. The present study supports scientific data for the traditional use of P. vulgaris and the wound healing properties of the plant can be referred to secondary metabolites as especially saponins found in the roots.

Flower Type Affects the Timing of Embryo Development in Native Primula Vulgaris

In this study, pin and thrum flowered wild primrose (Primula vulgaris= Syn: Primula acaulis) populations, which are naturally distributed in Black Sea Region in Türkiye, were cultivated and their pollen viability, pollen tube growth and embryo development stages were investigated. As a result of the study, pollen viability in pollen of the pin flower type was 83.10%, while the in vitro germination rate was 69.43%. The viability and in vitro germination rates of pollen of thrum flower type were 84.91% and 67.92%, respectively. As a result of the squash preparation examinations, it was observed that the pollen tubes of both types started to germinate on the stigma on the 1 DAP (Day after pollination). On 4 DAP, it was determined that pollen tubes penetrated to the ovule. Embryo developmental stages examinations showed that, zygote formation occurred on 6 DAP in the pin flower type; while on the 20 DAP, the embryo was in the heart stage and finally on the 40 DAP, it was seen that it formed a mature cotyledonary stage embryo. Endosperm in the thrum type started to develop faster than the pin type and formed on the 6 and 7 DAP. In the thrum flower type, the proembryo formed on 10 DAP, but embryo formation could only be seen on 30 DAP. In the ovary examinations performed on the 40 DAP, some embryos were in the cotyledon stage while some were still in the globular or heart stage. It was also determined that no embryos were found in some ovules.

Yabani Çuha Çiçeğinin (Primula vulgaris L.) Doku Kültürü İle Kitlesel Üretimi

Primrose (Primula spp.), in the Primulaceae family, blooms in early spring and is produced as a seasonal flower or potted ornamental. Even though primroses can be propagated by separating the offspring from the mother plant, the reproduction coefficient is low and the irregular and late germination seen in their seeds that prevent mass production. Therefore, with this study, it was aimed to mass production of wild primroses, which spread naturally, by culturing in vitro. Plants collected from nature were cultured in greenhouse conditions and used as explant source. Surface sterilized rhizome explants were cultured in MS medium containing growth regulators Benzyl adenine (BA) (0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mg L-1) and Indole butyric acid (IAA) (0.5 mg L-1). As a result of the study, the highest multiplication coefficient was 7.85 in MS medium containing 1.0 mg L-1 BA and 0.5 mg L-1 IAA. Rooting success of 75% was achieved by culturing the shoots in MS medium containing 1 mg L-1 IBA. A survival rate of 62.5% was obtained in plants cultured in peat:perlite medium.

Different molecular changes underlie the same phenotypic transition: Origins and consequences of independent shifts to homostyly within species.

The repeated transition from outcrossing to selfing is a key topic in evolutionary biology. However, the molecular basis of such shifts has been rarely examined due to lack of knowledge of the genes controlling these transitions. A classic example of mating system transition is the repeated shift from heterostyly to homostyly. Occurring in 28 angiosperm families, heterostyly is characterized by the reciprocal position of male and female sexual organs in two (or three) distinct, usually self-incompatible floral morphs. Conversely, homostyly is characterized by a single, self-compatible floral morph with reduced separation of male and female organs, facilitating selfing. Here, we investigate the origins of homostyly in Primula vulgaris and its microevolutionary consequences by integrating surveys of the frequency of homostyles in natural populations, DNA sequence analyses of the gene controlling the position of female sexual organs (CYPᵀ), and microsatellite genotyping of both progeny arrays and natural populations characterized by varying frequencies of homostyles. As expected, we found that homostyles displace short-styled individuals, but long-style morphs are maintained at low frequencies within populations. We also demonstrated that homostyles repeatedly evolved from short-styled individuals in association with different types of loss-of-function mutations in CYPᵀ. Additionally, homostyly triggers a shift to selfing, promoting increased inbreeding within and genetic differentiation among populations. Our results elucidate the causes and consequences of repeated transitions to homostyly within species, and the putative mechanisms precluding its fixation in P.vulgaris. This study represents a benchmark for future analyses of losses of heterostyly in other angiosperms.

Estimating Evapotranspiration from Commonly Occurring Urban Plant Species Using Porometry and Canopy Stomatal Conductance

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a key moisture flux in both the urban stormwater management and the urban energy budgets. While there are established methods for estimating ET for agricultural crops, relatively little is known about ET rates associated with plants in urban Green Infrastructure settings. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using porometry to estimate ET rates. Porometry provides an instantaneous measurement of leaf stomatal conductance. There are two challenges when estimating ET from porometry: converting from leaf stomatal conductance to leaf ET and scaling from leaf ET to canopy ET. Novel approaches to both challenges are proposed here. ET was measured from three commonly occurring urban plant species (Sedum spectabile, Bergenia cordifolia and Primula vulgaris) using a direct mass loss method. This data was used to evaluate the estimates made from porometry in a preliminary study (Sheffield, UK). The Porometry data captured expected trends in ET, with clear differences between the plant species and the reproducible decreasing rates of ET in response to reductions in soil moisture content.