Motivational Priming Research Articles

Stressing out! Effects of acute stress on prepulse inhibition and working memory.

Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex serves as a pre-cognitive marker of sensorimotor gating, and its deficit may predict cognitive impairments. Startle reflex is modulated by many factors. Among them, stress has been a topic of interest, but its effects on both pre-cognitive and cognitive variables continue to yield divergent results. This study aims to analyze the effect of acute stress on PPI of the startle reflex and cognitive function (working memory, attention, inhibition, and verbal fluency). Participants were exposed to the MAST stress induction protocol or a stress-neutral task: stress group (n = 54) or control group (n = 54). Following stress induction, participants' startle responses were recorded, and cognition was assessed. The results revealed that participants in the stress group exhibited greater startle magnitude, lower PPI, and lower scores in working memory tests compared with the control group. Additionally, a correlation was found between working memory and PPI across all the participants, independent of stress group. These findings support the notion that after stress, both greater startle magnitude and diminished PPI could play an adaptive role by allowing for increased processing of stimuli potentially dangerous and stress-related. Similarly, our results lend support to the hypothesis that lower PPI may be predictive of cognitive impairment. Considering the impact of stress on both pre-cognitive (PPI) and cognitive (working memory) variables, we discuss the possibility that the effect of stress on PPI occurs through motivational priming and emphasize the relevance of considering stress in both basic and translational science.

Vicarious facilitation of facial responses to pain.

Observing facial expressions of pain has been shown to lead to increased subjective, neural and autonomic pain responses. Surprisingly, these vicarious facilitation effects on its corresponding response channel, namely facial responses to pain have mostly been neglected. We aim to examine whether the prior exposure to facial expressions of pain leads to a facilitation of facial responses to experimental pain; and whether this facilitation is linked to the valence (pain vs. neutral expression) or also linked to specific motor-features of the facial pain expressions (different facial muscle movements). Subjective (intensity and unpleasantness ratings) and facial responses (Facial Action Coding System) of 64 participants (34 female) to painful and non-painful heat stimuli were assessed. Before each heat stimulus, video clips of computer-generated facial expressions (three different pain expressions and a neutral expression) were presented. The prior exposure to facial expressions of pain led to increased subjective and facial responses to pain. Further, vicarious pain facilitation of facial responses was significantly correlated with facilitation of unpleasantness ratings. We also found evidence that this vicarious facilitation of facial responses was not only linked to the presentation of pain versus neutral expressions but also to specific motor-features of the pain cue (increase in congruent facial muscle movements). Vicarious pain facilitation was found for subjective and facial responses to pain. The results are discussed with reference to the motivational priming hypothesis as well as with reference to motor priming. Our study uncovers evidence that facial pain responses are not only influenced by motivational priming (similar to other types of pain responses), but also by motor-priming. These findings shed light on the complexity - ranging from social, affective and motor mechanisms - underling vicarious facilitation of pain.

Brain responses to the vicarious facilitation of pain by facial expressions of pain and fear.

Observing pain in others facilitates self-pain in the observer. Vicarious pain facilitation mechanisms are poorly understood. We scanned 21 subjects while they observed pain, fear and neutral dynamic facial expressions. In 33% of the trials, a noxious electrical stimulus was delivered. The nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) and pain ratings were recorded. Both pain and fear expressions increased self-pain ratings (fear > pain) and the NFR amplitude. Enhanced response to self-pain following pain and fear observation involves brain regions including the insula (INS) (pain > fear in anterior part), amygdala, mid-cingulate cortex (MCC), paracentral lobule, precuneus, supplementary motor area and pre-central gyrus. These results are consistent with the motivational priming account where vicarious pain facilitation involves a global enhancement of pain-related responses by negatively valenced stimuli. However, a psychophysiological interaction analysis centered on the left INS revealed increased functional connectivity with the aMCC in response to the painful stimulus following pain observation compared to fear. The opposite connectivity pattern (fear > pain) was observed in the fusiform gyrus, cerebellum (I-IV), lingual gyrus and thalamus, suggesting that pain and fear expressions influence pain-evoked brain responses differentially. Distinctive connectivity patterns demonstrate a stronger effect of pain observation in the cingulo-insular network, which may reflect partly overlapping networks underlying the representation of pain in self and others.

Embodiment of approach-avoidance behavior: Motivational priming of whole-body movements in a virtual world.

Embodiment of approach-avoidance behavior: Motivational priming of whole-body movements in a virtual world.

Supplemental Material for Embodiment of Approach-Avoidance Behavior: Motivational Priming of Whole-Body Movements in a Virtual World

Supplemental Material for Embodiment of Approach-Avoidance Behavior: Motivational Priming of Whole-Body Movements in a Virtual World

Priming autonomous and controlling motivation and effects on persistence

The present studies examined whether priming distinct motivational states influenced persistence at a task designed to promote repeated failure, and post-task plans for engaging in self-regulatory activity. Two double-blind, between-subject experiments (Study 1: N = 58; Study 2: N = 92) involved participants being randomized to Autonomous Motivation, Controlling Motivation, or Neutral prime conditions using a scrambled-sentence test. Participants then attempted an impossible persistence task that promoted repeated failure. Following, participants reported their plans to engage in exercise. Using frequentist and Bayesian analyses, Study 1, Study 2, and an internal meta-analysis showed no differences in persistence or planned exercise across priming conditions, thus contrasting with previous research. Unanticipated moderation effects or motivational priming effects being smaller than those inputted into a priori power analyses may be the most likely reasons for these findings.

Placebo Manipulations Reverse Pain Potentiation by Unpleasant Affective Stimuli.

According to the motivational priming hypothesis, unpleasant stimuli activate the motivational defense system, which in turn promotes congruent affective states such as negative emotions and pain. The question arises to what degree this bottom–up impact of emotions on pain is susceptible to a manipulation of top–down-driven expectations. To this end, we investigated whether verbal instructions implying pain potentiation vs. reduction (placebo or nocebo expectations)—later on confirmed by corresponding experiences (placebo or nocebo conditioning)—might alter behavioral and neurophysiological correlates of pain modulation by unpleasant pictures. We compared two groups, which underwent three experimental phases: first, participants were either instructed that watching unpleasant affective pictures would increase pain (nocebo group) or that watching unpleasant pictures would decrease pain (placebo group) relative to neutral pictures. During the following placebo/nocebo-conditioning phase, pictures were presented together with electrical pain stimuli of different intensities, reinforcing the instructions. In the subsequent test phase, all pictures were presented again combined with identical pain stimuli. Electroencephalogram was recorded in order to analyze neurophysiological responses of pain (somatosensory evoked potential) and picture processing [visually evoked late positive potential (LPP)], in addition to pain ratings. In the test phase, ratings of pain stimuli administered while watching unpleasant relative to neutral pictures were significantly higher in the nocebo group, thus confirming the motivational priming effect for pain perception. In the placebo group, this effect was reversed such that unpleasant compared with neutral pictures led to significantly lower pain ratings. Similarly, somatosensory evoked potentials were decreased during unpleasant compared with neutral pictures, in the placebo group only. LPPs of the placebo group failed to discriminate between unpleasant and neutral pictures, while the LPPs of the nocebo group showed a clear differentiation. We conclude that the placebo manipulation already affected the processing of the emotional stimuli and, in consequence, the processing of the pain stimuli. In summary, the study revealed that the modulation of pain by emotions, albeit a reliable and well-established finding, is further tuned by reinforced expectations—known to induce placebo/nocebo effects—which should be addressed in future research and considered in clinical applications.

The protective impact of a mental skills training session and motivational priming on participants’ psychophysiological responses to performance stress

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether a motivational priming session (i.e., educational lecture) and/or cognitive restructuring-based mental skills training session can elicit a protective physiological response to performance stress (i.e., an ego-involving climate). The stress hormones dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and cortisol were assessed. DHEA is a neurosteroid that counters many of the negative effects of cortisol (Morgan et al., 2004). As a secondary purpose, threat and challenge appraisals (Mendes, Gray, Mendoza-Denton, Major, & Epel, 2007), stress mindset (Crum, Salovey, & Achor, 2013a), and affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) were examined. Male college students (N = 59, Mage = 20.25) were screened for potential confounds and randomly assigned to a control group (n = 16), a mental skills training group (n = 27), or an achievement goal perspective theory-based (AGPT; Nicholls, 1984, 1989) educational lecture group (n = 16). The experimental manipulation (i.e., lecture/session) took place during the 15 min prior to exposure to the performance stressor. The mental skills training session that aimed to foster a stress-is-enhancing mindset and a more task-oriented approach toward achievement yielded more adaptive responses to stress including a significant spike in DHEA-sulfate (i.e., DHEA-S), a challenge appraisal of the performance stressor, and a stress-is-enhancing mindset, compared to the control and AGPT groups. The AGPT lecture prevented a rise in salivary cortisol (i.e., a potentially threatening stress hormone) in response to the performance stressor. These findings suggest individuals can better protect themselves against psychosocial threats in performance settings, for which they have little control over, through education and training.

How words impact on pain.

IntroductionThe wording used before and during painful medical procedures might significantly affect the painfulness and discomfort of the procedures. Two theories might account for these effects: the motivational priming theory (Lang, 1995, American Psychologist, 50, 372) and the theory of neural networks (Hebb, 1949, The organization of behavior. New York, NY: Wiley; Pulvermuller, 1999, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 253; Pulvermüller and Fadiga, 2010, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 351).MethodsUsing fMRI, we investigated how negative, pain‐related, and neutral words that preceded the application of noxious stimuli as priming stimuli affect the cortical processing and pain ratings of following noxious stimuli.ResultsHere, we show that both theories are applicable: Stronger pain and stronger activation were observed in several brain areas in response to noxious stimuli preceded by both, negative and pain‐related words, respectively, as compared to preceding neutral words, thus supporting motivational priming theory. Furthermore, pain ratings and activation in somatosensory cortices, primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, thalamus, putamen, and precuneus were even stronger for preceding pain‐related than for negative words supporting the theory of neural networks.ConclusionOur results explain the influence of wording on pain perception and might have important consequences for clinical work.

Effects of Attentional and Motivational Priming on Athletic Performance

The effect of motivational and attentional primes on athletic performance was assessed. Thirty-four male, recreational basketball players shot 10 free throws after completing a word scrambled sentence task that primed either autonomous motivation, fluency, or nothing (control). Results revealed that neither prime significantly increased free throw scores more than the control, but fluency primed participants scored significantly more free throws than autonomous motivation primed participants. Results provide support that athletes should try to relax during high pressure situations that require precision. Focusing on the task at hand will hinder performance, while naturally going through the motions will enhance performance. Results also provided support that there is an optimal level of arousal for performing one’s best. Too low or too high of arousal actually hinders an athlete’s performance.

Motivational goal-priming with or without awareness produces faster and stronger force exertion

Previous research has demonstrated that barely visible (subliminal) goal-priming with motivational reward can alter the state of the motor system and enhance motor output. Research shows that these affective-motivational effects result from associations between goal representations and positive affect without conscious awareness. Here, we tested whether motivational priming can increase motor output even if the priming is fully visible (supraliminal), and whether the priming effect occurs through increased cortical excitability. Groups of participants were primed with either barely visible or fully visible words related to effort and control sequences of random letters that were each followed by fully visible positively reinforcing words. The priming effect was measured behaviourally by handgrip force and reaction time to the grip cue after the priming was complete. Physiologically, the effects were measured by pupil dilation and motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in response to transcranial magnetic stimulation during the priming task. Analysis showed that for both the supraliminal and subliminal conditions, reaction time decreased and total force, MEP magnitude, and pupil dilation increased. None of the priming-induced changes in behaviour or physiology differed significantly between the supraliminal and the subliminal groups, indicating that implicit motivation towards motor goals might not require conscious perception of the goals.

Hear what I appreciate: activation of consumption motives for healthier food choices across different value segments

This study represents ‘nudging’ interventions aiming to promote healthier food choices by altering the environment where choices are made, without price incentives. The study focuses on the activation of a consumer’s different consumption motives immediately prior to making food choices, thereby drawing a direct goal-priming approach that is postulated to stimulate congruent behaviours. The twofold purpose of this experimental research is to (1) evaluate the usefulness of direct goal priming when aiming at healthier food choices and (2) to identify the boundary conditions that either favour or inhibit the emergence of motivational priming effects. This purpose contributes to the literature on consumer health behaviour in two ways. First, it reveals new motivational origins for health-goal priming effects. Second, it gleans unprecedented empirical evidence for the moderating capacity of consumers’ values. Direct priming of a health goal proved to be effective in steering consumers towards healthier food options. Surprisingly, however, responsibility and status primes also led to an increase in choices of healthy food products. Moreover, a moderation analysis showed that the consumer’s values (achievement, conservation, and universalism) play an important role in how goal priming works. Thus, the success of priming greatly depends on the underlying values of the consumers.

Time of Day Differences in Neural Reward Functioning in Healthy Young Men.

Reward function appears to be modulated by the circadian system, but little is known about the neural basis of this interaction. Previous research suggests that the neural reward response may be different in the afternoon; however, the direction of this effect is contentious. Reward response may follow the diurnal rhythm in self-reported positive affect, peaking in the early afternoon. An alternative is that daily reward response represents a type of prediction error, with neural reward activation relatively high at times of day when rewards are unexpected (i.e., early and late in the day). The present study measured neural reward activation in the context of a validated reward task at 10.00 h, 14.00 h, and 19.00 h in healthy human males. A region of interest BOLD fMRI protocol was used to investigate the diurnal waveform of activation in reward-related brain regions. Multilevel modeling found, as expected, a highly significant quadratic time-of-day effect focusing on the left putamen (p < 0.001). Consistent with the "prediction error" hypothesis, activation was significantly higher at 10.00 h and 19.00 h compared with 14.00 h. It is provisionally concluded that the putamen may be particularly important in endogenous priming of reward motivation at different times of day, with the pattern of activation consistent with circadian-modulated reward expectancies in neural pathways (i.e., greater activation to reward stimuli at unexpected times of day). This study encourages further research into circadian modulation of reward and underscores the methodological importance of accounting for time of day in fMRI protocols.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This is one of the first studies to use a repeated-measures imaging procedure to explore the diurnal rhythm of reward activation. Although self-reported reward (most often operationalized as positive affect) peaks in the afternoon, the present findings indicate that neural activation is lowest at this time. We conclude that the diurnal neural activation pattern may reflect a prediction error of the brain, where rewards at unexpected times (10.00 h and 19.00 h) elicit higher activation in reward brain regions than at expected (14.00 h) times. These data also have methodological significance, suggesting that there may be a time of day influence, which should be accounted for in neural reward studies.

The effects of goal priming on cortisol responses in an ego-involving climate

ObjectivesThis study examined the potential for a motivational priming session to buffer the psychophysiological stress response to an ego-involving climate in a physical activity setting. Research in Achievement Goal Perspective Theory (AGPT) suggests that creating a caring/task-involving climate can have beneficial effects on participants in physical activity settings, even buffering the physiological response to stress. However, less is known about how individuals might buffer that response when an ego-involving climate is occurring beyond their control. DesignMale college students (N = 38) between the ages of 18 and 30 years (Mage=20.68,SD=2.66) were randomly assigned to either a control group with no exposure to AGPT or an experimental (i.e., AGPT motivational priming) group, and took part in an ego-involving juggling session. Psychophysiological stress responses (e.g., cortisol) were assessed. MethodPrior to juggling, the experimental group received a motivational priming session that briefly reviewed the body of AGPT literature, while the control group received information on the history of Sport Psychology as a professional field. Cortisol was measured at five time points throughout the study via saliva samples. Participants also completed pre- and post-measures of self-reported anxiety and self-confidence (CSAI-2). ResultsResults showed a marked increase in cortisol (as measured by percent change from baseline) in the control group, but not the experimental group. Psychological responses were stable across groups. ConclusionProviding athletes and exercisers with nothing more than basic information on AGPT can reduce their physiological markers of psychosocial stress in ego-involving climates. Such education may be a beneficial practice for coaches, physical educators, and trainers.

Neural responses to affective pictures while anticipating and perceiving respiratory threat.

Emotional processes have an impact on the anticipation and perception of bodily threat sensations, such as breathlessness. However, little is known about the reverse influence of breathlessness on emotional processes, as well as its modulation by anxiety sensitivity (AS). Here, we investigated by means of visually evoked potentials how the perception versus anticipation of resistive-load-induced breathlessness (RLIB) influences emotional processing. High (HA) and low anxious (LA) participants viewed pictures of positive, neutral, or negative content under conditions of perceived RLIB, anticipated RLIB, or an unloaded baseline. The P2 (230-290 ms) was significantly less positive under perceived RLIB. Furthermore, the early late positive potential (LPP; 300-500 ms) was significantly less positive during both RLIB conditions, as compared to baseline. Overall, the P1 was significantly more positive in HA as compared to LA individuals. Additionally, across conditions, the late LPP (600-1,000 ms) was enhanced for positive and negative pictures as opposed to neutral ones for the LA group. In contrast, for the HA group only, the positive pictures elicited the typical enhanced LPP. Notably, for the HA participants, negative pictures elicited significantly blunted late LPPs during perceived RLIB as compared to anticipated RLIB and baseline. A reversed effect (i.e., more positivity) was observed for LA participants, suggesting motivational priming. Taken together, these results highlight the impact of perceived and anticipated respiratory threat on the neural processing of emotional picture stimuli, as well as its modulation by anxiety sensitivity levels.

The effects of motivational priming on food portion size behavior

ABSTRACTThis research relied on regulatory focus theory to explore the extent to which the priming of a consumer’s goals or motivation toward promotion or prevention significantly affects their food portion size behavior. Two different experiments employing randomized post-test only with control group designs were executed. In Study 1, consumers’ motivations were moderately primed; the results supported regulatory focus theory in that a promotion prime led to an increase in food portion size behavior, and a prevention prime caused a decrease in food portion size behavior. In Study 2, consumers’ motivations were primed more subtly. When primed subtly or implicitly, regulatory focus theory was supported only for promotion-oriented consumers.

Effects of autonomous motivational priming on motivation and affective responses towards high-intensity interval training

ABSTRACTThis study examined the effect of autonomous motivational priming on motivation, attitudes and intentions towards high-intensity interval training (HIT). Participants (N = 42) performed a graded exercise test to determine their peak aerobic power (WPEAK). At a subsequent testing session, participants were randomised to complete either an autonomous or neutral motivational priming task followed by a 10 × 1 HIT exercise protocol, alternating 1-min bouts of hard (70% WPEAK) and light (12.5% WPEAK) exercises for 20 min. Participants primed with autonomous motivation reported greater enjoyment, P = .009, ηp2 = .16, and perceived competence, P = .005, ηp2 = .18, post-exercise compared to those in the neutral priming condition. Participants in the autonomous motivational priming condition also reported more positive attitudes, P = .014, ηp2 = .14, towards HIT; however, there was no difference between the conditions for task motivation during HIT or intentions, P = .53, ηp2 = .01, to engage in HIT. These findings highlight autonomous motivational priming as a method of enhancing affective and motivational experiences regarding HIT.

Affective Modulation of Brain and Autonomic Responses in Patients With Fibromyalgia.

Emotional dysregulation and abnormal processing of affective information are thought to play a significant role for the maintenance of pain in fibromyalgia. The motivational priming hypothesis states that negative emotions could increase pain via activation of the aversive system, thus leading to an affective modulation of defensive reflexes. Nevertheless, little is known about peripheral and central correlates of affective reflex modulation in fibromyalgia. Thirty patients with fibromyalgia and 30 healthy individuals were asked to view three video clips from a self-perspective to induce specific mood states. Video clips consisted of the same virtual walk through different locations of a park under three affective environments (unpleasant, pleasant, and neutral). Startle eyeblink reflex and heart rate response elicited by abrupt startle noises, as well as heart rate variability and electroencephalography (EEG) oscillations were recorded when participants were passively viewing the virtual environments. Patients with fibromyalgia rated all environments as more negative and arousing than did healthy controls (p values < .05). Nevertheless, startle eyeblink reflex and heart rate response were lower in patients with fibromyalgia than in healthy controls when viewing all three environments (p values < .05). Patients with fibromyalgia also displayed lower heart rate variability, as well as higher EEG power (2-22 Hz) during all environments than did healthy controls (p values < .05). Patients with fibromyalgia were characterized by relevant deficits in affective modulation of startle and cardiac responses, heart rate variability, and EEG power spectra in response to sustained induction of affective states. These findings suggest an alteration of emotional and attentional aspects of information processing at subjective, autonomic, and central nervous system levels.

New tools and techniques for understanding non-conscious consumer decisions

Market researchers increasingly understand the importance of non-conscious processes in consumer decision making. A number of concepts and models are being adopted from cognitive neuroscience, such as conceptual and motivational priming and processing fluency. In tandem with these new models, researchers are turning to techniques that measure non-conscious processes either through direct brain measures (eg EEG, SST and fMRI), moment-by-moment eye-movement patterns (eye-tracking), facial expressions of emotion (FAC), or the non-conscious emotional and meaning associations that a brand or ad triggers (implicit-response measures). This paper briefly describes the theoretical background to how these ideas are being applied, as well as each main technique, with its potential uses, strengths and weaknesses.

Emotion regulation of the affect-modulated startle reflex during different picture categories.

Previous studies on emotion regulation of the startle reflex found an increase in startle amplitude from down-, to non-, to up-regulation for pleasant and unpleasant stimuli. We wanted to clarify whether this regulation effect remains stable for different picture categories within pleasant and unpleasant picture sets. We assessed startle amplitude of 31 participants during down-, non-, or up-regulation of feelings elicited by pleasant erotic and adventure and unpleasant victim and threat pictures. Startle amplitude was smaller during adventure and erotic compared to victim and threat pictures and increased from down-, to non-, to up-regulation independently of the picture category. Results indicate that the motivational priming effect on startle modulation elicited by different picture categories is independent of emotion regulation instructions. In addition, the emotion regulation effect is independent of motivational priming effects.