Primary Tin Research Articles

Evaluasi Kinerja Alat Pengolahan Wet Belt Low Intensity Magnetic Separator (WBLIMS) Untuk Meningkatkan Kadar dan Recovery Sn di TB Primer Batubesi PT Timah Tbk Kabupaten Belitung Timur

Primary TB Batubesi Site a subsidiary of PT Timah Tbk, processes primary tin feed stockpile and SHP of oxide clay type using various tools, including the Wet Belt Low Intensity Magnetic Separator (WBLIMS). Currently, WBLIMS can only produce tin concentrate with a grade of 0.5-2% and a recovery of 5-8%, falling below the company's target of 8% grade and 15% recovery (XRF Test). This research conducted eight experiments with variations in feed types and rates. The WBLIMS feed from the stockpile has a Sn content of 0.62%, resulting in a tin concentrate with 1.21% Sn and a recovery of 7.05%. On the other hand, the feed from SHP has a Sn content of 0.61%, resulting in a tin concentrate with 0.95% Sn and a recovery of 5.11%. The type and rate of feed affect the increase in Sn grade and recovery. At low feed rates, the feed material yields lower Sn grade and recovery, while at high feed rates, the results are higher. Increasing the feed rate for WBLIMS from the stockpile leads to a decrease in Sn grade and recovery, whereas in the processing of SHP, the Sn grade increases but recovery varies. Experiments F1L1 and F2L3 yield the most optimal Sn grade and recovery, with F1L1 having a Sn grade of 2.28% and recovery of 11.54%, and F2L3 having a Sn grade of 2.87% and recovery of 9.24%. Although not reaching the company's target, these experimental results can enhance the Sn grade and recovery compared to the previous setup.

Partitioning of tin between mafic minerals, Fe-Ti oxides and silicate melts: Implications for tin enrichment in magmatic processes

The partition coefficients of Sn (tin) between minerals and silicate melts (DSnmin/melt) are vital for understanding the Sn enrichment during magmatic processes related to tin-granites. However, experimentally determined DSnmin/melt values remain scarce due to the difficulty in avoiding severe Sn loss to noble metal capsules. In this study, we performed mineral/melt Sn partitioning experiments at 0.5–1.0 GPa, 850–1000 °C, and fO2 of FMQ + 8 to ∼ FMQ − 1. The fO2s were imposed by solid buffers of Ru–RuO2, Re–ReO2, Ni–NiO, Co–CoO and graphite using three improved capsule designs: 1) a single sample capsule (Pt) for the Ru–RuO2 buffered runs, 2) double capsules with Pt95Rh05 as outer capsule and Re as inner sample capsule for the graphite and Re–ReO2 buffered runs, and 3) triple capsules for the Co–CoO and Ni–NiO buffered runs, with Pt95Rh05 (or Au) as outer capsule, Re lined Pt as inner sample capsule. These new capsule designs avoided significant Sn loss and enabled us to obtain accurate DSnmin/melt at a controlled fO2. The experimental results show that DSnmin/melt values are 0.08–12.66 for amphibole, 0.01–5.55 for biotite, 0.09–10.39 for clinopyroxene, 0.004–0.97 for orthopyroxene, < 0.01 for olivine, 1.34–108.43 for Ti-magnetite, 0.04–4.17 for spinel and 0.10–0.64 for ilmenite. The large variation of DSn for each mineral was mainly ascribed to the effect of fO2, which results in an arresting decrease of DSn with decreasing fO2. Under the reducing conditions (fO2 < FMQ), Sn is highly incompatible (DSn < 0.1) in almost all the minerals. Modeling results indicate that partial melting at low fO2 conditions results in Sn enrichment in the derived magma, while subsequent high degree of fractional crystallization is also important for the Sn enrichment in the residual melt. The experimental and modeling results thus explain why major primary tin deposits are always related to reducing and highly fractionated granites.

Radioactive Mineral Distribution on Tin Placer Deposits of Southeast Asia Tin Belt Granite in Bangka Island

Bangka Island is an area rich in primary and secondary tin deposits. Tin deposits are formed around the contact between granite and older rocks, while secondary tin deposits are formed in the modern channels and paleochannels. Many previous researchers have researched radioactive minerals in primary tin deposits and modern channel deposits, but research on radioactive minerals in paleo channel deposits has never been carried out. The characterization of radioactive minerals in paleo channel deposits was done in this study to determine the potency of radioactive minerals in secondary tin deposits by comparing the content of radioactive minerals in paleochannels with modern channels and tin mine tailing deposits. The data used were mineralogical data and radioactivity data, along with the uranium and thorium content of the rocks from several previous studies. Data showed significant mineral content differences in paleo channel, modern channel, and tin mine tailings deposits. Mineral (monazite and zircon) content in tin mine tailing deposits was the highest. Source rocks for the radioactive minerals monazite and zircon are predicted to be the granitic rocks or tourmaline quartz veins of primary tin deposits. The radioactivity value of rocks in the paleo channel is relatively the same as the modern channel, ranging from 20 to 150 c/s. Uranium content in paleo channel is the same as modern channel deposits, ranging from 10 to 15 ppm eU. The thorium content of the rocks in the paleo channel ranges from 1 to 60 ppm eTh, while in the modern channel, it ranges from 1 to 45 ppm eTh. The radioactivity value and uranium content of the rocks are less effective for determining potential areas of radioactive minerals in placer tin deposits. In contrast, data on thorium content are quite effective for determining potential areas of radioactive minerals in placer tin deposits.

Barium isotope variations in highly-fractionated granites linked to tin mineralization: New insights into tin recycling and enrichment in the continental crust

Most primary tin deposits are intimately associated with highly-fractionated granites (HFGs), but the factors controlling the formation of tin mineralization; including source enrichment, partial melting, fractional crystallization, and fluid processes, are still subject to debate. The potassium-rich Yanbei volcanic-intrusive complex is part of the world-class Nanling WSn metallogenic belt in South China and contains both barren and Sn-rich igneous rocks. We report here Ba isotope compositions of these rocks in an effort to elucidate the relationship between HFGs and related Sn mineralization. Overall, the results show δ138/134Ba values ranging widely from −0.83 to +0.21‰. The δ138/134Ba of the barren volcanic rocks (−0.11 to +0.21‰) are correlated with SiO2, Sr, and Ba contents, and Eu/Eu* values in a manner indicating that fractional crystallization is the main control over their Ba isotope variation. The most fractionated volcanic rocks have the highest δ138/134Ba due to crystallization of alkali-feldspar rich in light Ba isotopes. In contrast, the highly-fractionated tin granites have low Ba contents and δ138/134Ba values of −0.83 to −0.23‰. These low values cannot be explained by either addition of mantle-sourced melts and magmatic fluids, or fractional crystallization and fluid circulation at the shallow emplacement level. Rather, these geochemical features are likely inherited from an isotopically lighter crustal source with enhanced tin contents related to the recycling of intensely chemically weathered sediments. When combined with bulk-rock chemical data, the Ba isotope data suggest that assimilation of this tin-enriched source played a key role in forming the tin granites and related tin deposits.

Measuring the Satisfaction Index of Bumi Rasa Program Using Survey Method: A Case Study Damar Village, East Belitung Regency

Bumi Rasa is a community empowerment program conducted by PT. Timah Tbk Primary Tin Production Unit. This community empowerment is undertaken in the Damar village, East Belitung Regency. The program consists of several programs, namely catering, stationery, traditional cakes, cleaning services, and laundry. The Bumi Rasa program has a significant impact on the economic and environmental development of the village. Therefore, this study analyzes the satisfaction level of the program using the satisfaction index survey method. This study aims to measure the satisfaction level of the recipients of the community development program. The Bumi Rasa program received a satisfaction index of 3.06 from the community, which converted to a satisfaction index of 76.67, indicating that the community is very satisfied with the program

Microstructural Characterization of Sn57Bi1Ag Solder Alloy Joints

Sn57Bi1Ag alloy system meets the basic solderability requirements while reliability of solder is less known. The presence of intermetallics that form at the solder-joint interface and in the bulk solder is the primary reason to cause joint failure on simple loading. Furthermore, dissolution of soldered surface (copper, gold, silver, nickel, etc.) into the solder during reflow alters the composition of the interface leading to the formation of intermetallic phases. The present paper addresses the characterization of low temperature Sn57Bi1Ag solder alloy, its joint interface metallurgy and integrity. Generally, formation of intermetallic phases (Cu3Sn, Cu6Sn5, Ag3Sn, AuSn2, Ni3Sn4, etc.) at the solder-pad interface is in the range of 0.3 to 1.0µm. On thermal ageing at 75°C (0.55Tm), the intermetallic phases grow further up to 2.3µm, particularly CuSn and AuSn phases. In addition, to distributed eutectic tin (Sn) and bismuth (Bi) phases, fine eutectic tin and bismuth phases and primary tin (β-Sn) are also observed. Coarsening of Bi and Sn phases is noticed on thermal ageing (75°C and 100°C). The rate of coarsening increases with the supply of thermal energy promoting Sn/Bi atomic diffusion and movement of eutectic boundaries (grain boundaries). However, the Sn-Bi interface is stable without any significant changes in eutectic structures and its morphologies. The mechanical drop test of the Sn57Bi1Ag solder joint passed 120 drops, characteristic life corresponds to the number of drops for a failure of 63.2%. Evaluated as per JESD22-B111 specification to a maximum peak acceleration of 1500G and half-sine shock pulse duration of 0.5 milliseconds, soldered the alloy to copper OSP surface. The solder joint also passed 1200cycles evaluated at -40 to +125°C. Electrical connectivity of the solder joints soldered to ENIG plated test boards is recorded continuously. Crystallographic orientation of Sn and Bi second phases is observed using electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) of thermal aged solder joints and are also presented in this paper.

Relationship Between Distribution Morphology of Primary Tin Crystal and Strength in Miniature SAC Solder Specimen

Relationship Between Distribution Morphology of Primary Tin Crystal and Strength in Miniature SAC Solder Specimen

Tantalum Extraction and Its Wide-Ranging Significance

Tantalum is a transition metal with atomic number 73. It has a shiny, silvery-gray appearance and offers a distinctive set of characteristics that give it significant value in a range of applications. Tin is commonly found in association with niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta). Cassiterite (SnO2) is the primary tin mineral, typically containing substantial quantities of both niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta) compounds. A significant portion of these components are left behind in the slag that is produced at the end of the industrial process, which occurs during the extraction and refining stages of the tin manufacturing process. Those slags are already capable of being considered as a potential and significant source of refractory metals such as tantalum and niobium due to their potential. The mining sector is vital to the nation's gross domestic product (GDP), and tantalum is an important component of that industry. The extraordinary element tantalum is discussed in this abstract, along with its extraction, important properties, and many applications

Identification of mineral characterization and alteration types in primary tin deposits of oxide skarn type in Batubesi mining areas by petrographic analysis and grain counting analysis

The presence of primary tin ore on Belitung Island can be found in several areas with varying amounts of presence. One area that has the potential is the Batubesi TB area, Burung Mandi Village, Damar District at East Belitung Regency. This research aims to identify mineral assemblages and alteration types in oxide skarn deposits. The methods used are outcrop observation, sampling, and mineralization-alteration identification. Testing of rock samples through petrographic analysis is to identify minerals through their polarization optical properties and GCA analysis (Grain Counting Analysis) is to determine specific types of minerals that cannot be seen through petrographic analysis. Macroscopically, oxide skarn deposits have a greenish-brick red, black appearance which is dominated by ore minerals (iron oxide, iron carbonate, and iron sulfide), and in some parts chlorite mineral dissemination. Based on the observation result of the optical properties of the rock samples, metallic minerals other than those that have been directly identified were found, such as ilmenite, siderite, cassiterite, and chlorite. The results of the GCA analysis indicate the presence of cassiterite, pyrite, quartz, siderite, hematite, and limonite minerals. Based on these minerals, it can be seen that the type of alteration in the study area is skarn alteration.

Chronology and geochemical composition of cassiterite and zircon from the Maodeng Sn-Cu deposit, Northeastern China: Implications for magmatic-hydrothermal evolution and ore-forming process

Primary tin deposits usually contain little or no copper due to the distinct geochemistry of Sn and Cu. However, examples of copper-rich tin deposits in many tin provinces around the world are also well known. The genesis of copper-rich tin deposits remains controversial. The Maodeng Sn-Cu polymetallic, a typical Cu-rich Sn deposit in the southern Great Xing’an Range (SGXR) Northeast China, offers an excellent opportunity to reveal the genesis of coupled copper-tin deposits. The ore mineralization is associated with the granite porphyry, complement phase of the Alubaogeshan complex, which emplaced into the volcanic rocks of the Lower Permian Dashizhai Formation. Herein, we report new zircon and cassiterite U-Pb ages and their trace elements compositions, with the aim of constraining the metallogenic chronology framework, and clarifying the indicative effects of the ore-forming fluids on mineralization in different ore-forming stages, and thus establishing the genetic model for the Sn-Cu deposit. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of zircon from the granite porphyry yields a weighted mean U-Pb age of 134.6 ± 0.4 Ma, which consistent to the zircon U-Pb age (ca. 138 Ma) of porphyry monzogranite (main phase of the Alubaogeshan complex) and cassiterite U-Pb ages (137–140 Ma), suggesting an Early Cretaceous Sn-Cu mineralization under the Paleo-Pacific plate slab roll-back setting. Granite porphyry displays more evolved characterisrics, with higher SiO2 contents (71.5 ∼ 77.4 wt%), Rb/Sr ratios (3.39 ∼ 10.33) and lower Nb/Ta ratios (10.86 ∼ 13.06) compared to those of porphyry monzogranite (SiO2 contents of 70.4 ∼ 72.1 wt%; Rb/Sr and Nb/Ta ratios of 1.03 ∼ 1.72 and 13.34 ∼ 15.83, respectively). This is further supported by the trace elements contents of zircons from granite porphyry and porphyry monzogranite, because the former has a stronger Eu anomaly, higher Hf concentrations, lower Zr/Hf and Th/U ratios than the latter. Our new data, integrated with previously published geochemical data, suggest that the granites associated with Cu-rich Sn deposits are characterized by higher oxygen fugacity, lower differential degree and aluminum saturation index (ASI) than those of Sn-W deposits. This could also use to address the Sn-Cu deposits usually have relatively small Sn mineralization potential. The trace elements of the cassiterites are characterized by high Fe (up to 3358 ppm), Ti (up to 1894 ppm) and abnormal high In (∼2500 ppm) concentrations, but low Nb, Ta contents. From early to late stage, the W and U contents and Nb/Ta and Zr/Hf ratios are increased, reveal that the ore-forming process experienced the cooling, increasing volatile contents and fluid-rock reaction. Finally, a new metallogenic model was established, which highlight oxidized Cu-rich fluids exsolved from the upwelling mantle magma would add to the reduced, Sn-rich magma chambers. This contribution indicate that, the Cu and Sn metals come from the mantle magma and crustal granitic magma, respectively, and that Cu-rich Sn deposits are more likely a product of spatial coupling.

Peraluminous granite related to tin mineralization formed by magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution of metaluminous melt: A case study from the Bozhushan batholith, South China Block

Most primary tin deposits are closely temporally and spatially related to peraluminous granites. These granites usually exhibit highly evolved geochemical characteristics that disguise their specific origin. This paper reports a study of whole-rock geochemistry and Sm–Nd isotopes, zircon U–Pb geochronology and Lu–Hf isotopes, and mineral chemistry of the Bozhushan granitic batholith in the Youjiang basin, South China. The Bozhushan batholith, producing the Bainiuchang large tin–polymetallic deposit, consists of metaluminous tin-barren monzogranites and peraluminous tin-bearing monzogranites. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating suggests that the peraluminous rocks were emplaced during the Late Cretaceous (88.5 ± 0.7 Ma), which is largely consistent with the emplacement age of the metaluminous rocks. These granitic rocks have similar Nd-Hf isotopic compositions, supporting a common crustal source. Relative to the metaluminous monzogranites, the peraluminous tin-bearing rocks exhibit more evolved geochemical compositions with higher Si and lower Ca, P, Mg, Fe, and Ti and stronger depletion in Eu, Ba, Sr, Zr, Hf, and rare earth elements. These differing geochemical characteristics can be explained by the differentiation of biotite, plagioclase, zircon and apatite. The extremely low Nb/Ta (<5) and K/Rb (<150) ratios of the peraluminous rocks indicate a fluid exsolution process. We suggest that the peraluminous tin-bearing rocks were derived by magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution of the metaluminous melts. Combining our new results with previous studies, we conclude that on a worldwide scale some peraluminous granites related to tin mineralization are derived by magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution of metaluminous melts rather than from metasedimentary rocks.

Examining fingerprint trace elements in cassiterite: Implications for primary tin deposit exploration

In this study, a machine learning method and a piece of cassiterite trace element composition data were used to find fingerprint trace elements that distinguish different tin (Sn) mineralization types and build tools for exploring primary Sn deposit exploration. The trace element dataset of cassiterite from the granite-related Sn metallogenic system was built using the following two approaches: (1) by analyzing the cassiterite samples from nine Sn deposits in Myanmar using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and (2) collecting published data. The resulting dataset contains 661 records of 12 trace elements in cassiterite from 4 mineralization types: pegmatite, greisen, quartz-vein, and skarn. The spider diagrams of trace elements and the principal component analysis indicate that cassiterite samples from the same one mineralization type are clustered together and have unique geochemical characteristics. Using recursive feature elimination with cross-validation and simulation, tantalum (Ta), niobium (Nb), manganese (Mn), hafnium (Hf), iron (Fe), scandium (Sc) and Sc/Ta, Sc/Hf, and Sc/Mn were selected as the fingerprint elements and ratios, respectively. The cluster distribution in the biplots of the fingerprint elements and ratios indicates that these fingerprints are sensitive to the mineralization type. The distribution in the biplots also reveals that there is an evolutionary sequence of magmatic–hydrothermal fluids from pegmatite to skarn at the cassiterite crystallization environment. This data-driven study improves our understanding of the isomorphism between Sn and ions with similar charge and ionic radii in cassiterite from different hydrothermal environments. The complementary relationships between vanadium (V), Nb, and Ta are also identified. The element V is preferred to form a charge balance pair with Sc in cassiterite from skarn, whereas Ta and Nb are preferred to constitute a charge balance pair in cassiterite from the quartz-vein, pegmatite, and greisen. Our findings demonstrate that trace element compositions of detrital cassiterite grains from stream sediments can be used as an exploration tool to discover concealed primary Sn deposits and to evaluate the economic value based on the grade-tonnage model in the preliminary stage of mineral exploration.

Technogenic Placer Deposits of the Artic Zone of Yakutia

The northern parts of the Arctic Zone of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) are the most industrialized regions of the Republic. Since the 1930s, there has been intensive mining of alluvial and primary tin and gold placers. The 60-70-year mining operation has accumulated huge mining residues in the region, leaving behind useful components owing to deficiencies in mining technology at the time and deviations from mining technology. These wastes are considered technogenic placer deposits. The study of these wastes has identified the following types of technological s: 1 – technogenic placers of tin and gold; 2 - technogenic combined placers of gold and kularit; 3 - technogenic placers of tailings ponds consisting of mining wastes of gold and tin ore placers.

Fatigue Life of Miniature SAC Solder Specimen Affected by Distribution Morphology of Primary Tin Crystal

Miniature specimens of Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu (SAC) solder show large variation in tensile strength even though they are under the same loading conditions. We have found that this phenomenon can be correlated to the difference in the distribution morphology of primary Tin crystals in the specimens. Such a different could affect the fatigue strength of the miniature specimen. Then, in this study, we carried out fatigue tests with cyclic tension-compression loading using the miniature SAC solder specimen to investigate the relationship between the fatigue life and the distribution morphology of primary Tin crystals. The results show that the stress amplitudes of the hysteresis loops under the same loading condition show large variations and the fatigue life becomes shorter with the increase in the stress amplitude. The specimens having a high-stress amplitude in their hysteresis loops contain a high proportion of the primary Tin crystals which grow in directions vertical to or parallel to the loading direction. Namely, the fatigue strength of the specimen containing a large number of such primary Tin crystals tends to become lower.

The potential for land erosion due to primary tin mining in Bangka Island

In the context of primary tin mining by PT. Timah on the Bangka Island, an analysis of environmental impacts is needed concerning various related aspects. One of the potential impacts that need to be considered is erosion due to open land for mining activities. Rain and mining water triggers the process of erosion on open land with particular soil and topographic characteristics. This paper presents an analysis of the potential for erosion due to primary tin mining at five mining locations in Bangka Island. The soil erosion rate can be analyzed using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and GIS. The environmental data used to predict the erosion rate include soil type, soil texture and structure, land cover, rainfall, slope, and soil management techniques. In this study, rainfall erosivity is taking into account based on average monthly rainfall from 2010-2019. The results showed that the erosion rates at the primary mining sites are relatively low, ranging from 4.72 to 683.47 tons/ha/year. The results showed that the erosion rate is more influenced by the topography (slope factor). Besides, the considerable land-use change will also contribute significantly to the amount of soil erosion.

Beneficiation of cassiterite from primary tin ores using gravity and magnetic separation

Alluvial tin ore deposit of PT. Timah is predicted to be depleted in the next 5 to 10 years. Finding a new source of tin ore is important for the company’s sustainability. PT. Timah has been exploring for primary tin ore. Tin (Sn) content in primary tin ore ranges from 0.2 – 1.0%. The Sn particles liberated in the cassiterite mineral are above 50% so they can be processed by the physical separation method. This research aims to observe the beneficiation of cassiterite from primary tin ore (oxide and skarn samples) using gravity and magnetic separation. The cassiterite concentrate produced from the beneficiation process is expected to be used as feed for the smelting process. Beneficiation results of primary tin ore (oxide and skarn samples) showed that cassiterite (SnO2) content were 15.09% and 40.03%, respectively and the recovery was 42.9% and 11.87%, respectively. The cassiterite concentrate produced from the beneficiation process cannot be used to feed the smelting process.

The extraction of tin (Sn) from primary tin ore deposits using wet chlorination

More than half of the world’s tin production is from secondary ore deposits. However, along with its depletion, PT Timah Tbk has explored and mined the primary deposits in Belitung, one that is expected to become tin’s new source. Tin was found liberated as cassiterite in the secondary deposits, while in the primary, it was associated with other minerals requiring more complex processing. Therefore, a suitable technology is needed to extract the tin from the primary ore deposits. This research aims to observe the extraction of tin from primary deposits (oxide and skarn ores) using HCl wet chlorination, observed at different temperature (60 – 90°C), HCl concentrations (10 – 50 % excess of stoichiometric amount), leaching time (60 – 300 minutes), and with or without the addition of oxidant (hydrogen peroxide, H2O2). The research found that the highest percentage of tin extraction from oxide and skarn ores was 92.32% and 97.28%, respectively. Both results were achieved at the same optimum condition: temperature of 60°C, 50% excess of HCl, 240 minutes of leaching time, and at two-fold excess of the stoichiometric amount of H2O2. It was concluded that oxidative wet chlorination could be used to recover tin from its primary ore deposits.

Structural Control of Primary Tin Mineralization (Case Study: Parit Tiga, West Bangka Regency, Bangka Belitung)

Tins are important commodities of metal mineral deposits in Bangka and have been mined since the seventeenth century. The research aims to determine the characteristics of primary tin mineralization in Parit Tiga, West Bangka Regency, Bangka Belitung and the control of geological structures on mineralization. Rock samples were obtained from geological mapping and analyzed using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), petrography, and mineragraphy method. From the analysis, the alteration can be divided into four zones: quartz + tourmaline alteration, quartz + halloysite + chlorite + pyrophyllite alteration, quartz + illite alteration, and quartz + kaolinite + chlorite + dickite alteration. The cassiterite, hematite, and pyrite are found in the mineralization zone associated with the greisen deposit. Based on the structural analysis data conducted on the normal left slip fault, the shear stress has an orientation of NE-SW and resulting in the forming of NW-SE gash fractures. These gash fractures have been filled by quartz and the tourmaline as disseminated minerals. The distribution of mineralization and alteration are found adjacent to the sheeted quartz-tourmaline veins. The dominated-tin concentration in ore deposits has the same orientation as the fault structure. These infer that the mineralization and alteration in the research area are controlled by geological structure.

Kajian Produksi Ball Mill Dalam Menentukan Efektivitas Penggerusan Bijih Timah Primer Di CV Persada Tambang Intitama TK 4.218 Paku Kabupaten Bangka Selatan

CV Persada Tambang Intitama TK 4.218 Paku is a partner company of PT Timah Tbk, which conducts primary tin mining using the open pit method. Primary tin ore processing includes comminution, sizing, and concentration activities. Grinding using a Ball Mill is an advanced process that aims to reduce the grain size of the material in order to obtain finer grain sizes (fine material) and prepare the right grain size for the concentration process of 80 s.d - 200 mesh. In this study, the variables used are feed rate, number of Ball Mill revolutions (RPM), and water rate. The experiment was used 27 times by setting variables in combination to get effective scouring results. The material at the study site is divided into high grade and low grade materials with primary tin mineralization types in the form of stanniferous veins and gossan formed due to the oxidation process of polymetallic veins. Variable feed rate, number of Ball Mill revolutions (RPM), and water rate are very influential on the results of grinding. The higher the feed rate, the number of turns, and the rate of water the higher the Ball Mill scour, but if the variable is too high it causes overload capacity so that the output volume decreases. The effectiveness of the grinding results obtained in sample 24 with the highest production value reaching 93.9%. The effective value is obtained from setting the feed rate variable 5 to 6 Ton Per Hour (TPH), 80 rotation RPM, and water rate of 10.800 liters/hour (l/h). The result of the maximum feed rate that can be done is 9.86 TPH with LPT is 236.64 ton/day. Thus, the average LPT target of the company's 230-240 tons/day Ball Mill can be achieved

Formation of tin ore deposits: A reassessment

About 85% of all historically mined tin of about 27 million tonnes Sn is from a few tin ore provinces within larger granite belts. These are, in decreasing importance, Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar), South China, the Central Andes (Bolivia, southern Peru) and Cornwall, UK. Primary tin ore deposits are part of magmatic-hydrothermal systems invariably related to late granite phases (tin granites, pegmatites, tin porphyries), and may become dispersed by exogenic processes and then eventually form placer deposits within a few km from their primary source, due to the density of cassiterite, its hardness and chemical stability. Alluvial placer deposits were usually the starting point for tin mining, and have provided at least half of all tin mined. The small-volume and late granite phases in spatial, temporal and chemical relationship to tin ore deposits are highly fractionated. Systematic element distribution patterns in these granite phases and their associated much larger multiphase granite systems suggest fractional crystallization as the main petrogenetic process controlling magmatic evolution and magmatic tin enrichment. Oxidation state controls the bulk tin distribution coefficient, with low oxidation state favoring incompatible behavior of divalent tin. Low oxidation state is also mineralogically expressed by accessory ilmenite (FeO TiO2) as opposed to accessory magnetite (FeO Fe2O3) in more oxidized melt systems. This difference in the accessory mineralogy and hence metallogenic potential (tin-bearing ilmenite-series versus barren magnetite-series granites), can be easily detected in the field by a hand-held magnetic susceptibility meter. The hydrothermal system is a continuation of the magmatic evolution trend and necessary consequence of the crystallization of a hydrous melt. The exsolved highly saline aqueous fluid phase, enriched in boron and/or fluorine plus a wide metal spectrum, can be accomodated and stored by the intergranular space in crystallized melt portions, or accumulate in larger physical domains, accompanied by focused release of mechanical energy (brecciation, vein formation), dependent on emplacement depth (pressure). The hydrothermal mobility of tin is largely as Sn2+-chloride complexes; the precipitation of tin as cassiterite involves oxidation. Tin typically characterizes the inner high-temperature part of much larger km-sized zoned magmatic-hydrothermal systems with the chemical signature Sn-W-Cu-As-Bi in the inner part (greisen, vein/stockwork/breccia systems, skarn) and a broader halo with vein- or replacement-style Pb-Zn-Ag-Sb-Au-U mineralization of lower temperature. This zoning pattern may also occur telescoped on each other. Active continental margins are the favorable site for both copper (−gold) and tin (−tungsten) systems. However, the narrowly segmented metal endowment and the episodic nature of ore formation suggest additional controls. These are the build-up of a subduction-derived metal and fluid inventory in the lower continental crust by flat-slab subduction (very little magmatism) for copper‑gold in the main arc, followed by large-scale intracrustal melting during mantle upwelling in the back arc for tin (chemically reduced reservoir rocks) and/or tungsten mineralization (less sensitive to oxidation state).