Primary Land Research Articles

Evolution and Predictive Analysis of Spatiotemporal Patterns of Habitat Quality in the Turpan–Hami Basin

The expansion of urban areas and unsustainable land use associated with human activities have brought about a decline in habitat quality (HQ), especially in arid regions with fragile ecosystems. A precise prediction of land use and habitat quality changes across different scenarios is crucial for the sustainable maintenance of ecological diversity. In this article, the InVEST model was employed to assess both the quality and degradation levels of habitats in the Turpan–Hami Basin (THB) spanning 1990~2020. Additionally, the InVEST-PLUS coupling model was employed to forecast habitat conditions under three different scenarios in 2050. Specifically, it involved the comparison of land use changes and spatial distribution of HQ across natural development (ND) scenarios, town development (UD) scenarios, and ecological protection (EP) scenarios, along with the analysis of hot spots of HQ spanning 1990~2050. The outcomes revealed the following: (1) The primary land use in the THB was categorized as unused land, alongside notable expansions in cultivated land, grassland, and built-up land. Conversely, there was a considerable decline observed in forests, water bodies, and unused land spanning 1990~2020. (2) The HQ within the THB exhibited evident spatial clustering characteristics. Between 1990 and 2020, areas with low HQ accounted for over 85%, areas with unchanged HQ constituted 88.19%, areas experiencing deteriorated HQ comprised approximately 5.02%, and areas displaying improved HQ encompassed around 6.79%. (3) Through the comparison of HQ for the ND, UD, and EP scenarios in 2050, it was observed that the average HQ under the EP scenario ranked highest, exhibiting the lowest degree of degradation on average. This indicates that the EP scenario is most advantageous for preserving HQ. Conclusively, this research provides valuable viewpoints for making decisions aimed at enhancing HQ in ecologically fragile arid regions.

Significant negative impact of human activities on carbon storage in the Yellow River Delta over the past three decades

With the increasing intensification of human activities, significant changes in land use and land cover (LULC) have posed a severe threat to the carbon storage capacity of wetland ecosystems. A deep understanding of this impact is crucial for protecting regional ecosystems and promoting sustainable development. This study utilized the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model and the human activity intensity (HAI) index to conduct detailed grid analysis and global analysis of carbon storage through creating fishnet system and explored the complex relationship between carbon storage and HAI in the Yellow River Delta (YRD), China. The results indicated that over the past 30 years, natural wetlands such as meadow wetlands and salt marshes in the study area had undergone significant degradation due to escalating human activities, while artificial wetlands and non-wetland areas expanded. Concurrently, the total regional carbon storage had declined by 2.08 Tg, representing a significant drop of 8.22 % in the YRD from 1990 to 2020. Among them, dry land, as the primary land type, served as the most crucial carbon pool. Additionally, the human activity intensity of land surface (HAILS) increased significantly, with a growth rate of 37.27 %. HAI mapping revealed a continuous expansion of areas with high HAI. In contrast, the Yellow River Delta National Nature Reserve (YRDNNR) maintained relatively low HAI. Correlation analysis further showed the significant negative correlation (p < 0.01) between carbon storage and HAI, with r values of grid analysis ranging from −0.1395 to −0.0334, while that for global analysis was −0.9643, respectively. This reflected the spatial heterogeneity and agglomeration effects of data analysis across different scales. This study provides valuable insights for achieving the “dual carbon” goals and supporting the conservation and management of wetland ecosystems.

Factors affecting distribution and ecological risk assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in groundwater of the Huazhou district in northwestern China

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) pollution in groundwater is a significant global concern. In this study, 26 groundwater samples were collected from the unconfined aquifers in Huazhou District, northwestern China, to assess their distribution characteristics, influencing factors, and ecological risks across various geomorphological settings. The findings revealed 35 VOCs in collected groundwater samples, with aromatic hydrocarbons having the highest detection rate (100%), and the VOCs distribution exhibited significant spatial variations, with the highest VOCs concentration near a chemical plant on the inclined pluvial plain. The lithology and groundwater flow influenced the vertical and lateral transport of VOCs, with concentrations decreasing as the aquifer permeability decreases along the groundwater flow from the inclined pluvial plain to the river. The Mantel test was used to analyze the correlation between VOCs and environmental factors, geochemical analyses indicated that nitrate (NO3−) and sulfate (SO42−) served as electron acceptors in the anaerobic biodegradation of organic pollutants, with bicarbonate (HCO3−) levels increasing as a result of this biodegradation. Additionally, the curved streamline searchlight shaped model (CS-SLM) was applied to identify the primary land use types affecting VOCs content, construction land and cropland were primary land use types affecting VOCs distribution. Finally, the ecological risk assessment indicated the highest risk quotient (RQ) for styrene (0.21), suggesting a manageable risk level. The study emphasizes the complexity of VOCs contamination in groundwater, providing a foundation for targeted mitigation strategies.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation net primary productivity and its response to climate variability

Despite its significance, net primary productivity is rarely used as an indicator of climate change. The purpose of this study was to assess the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation net primary productivity and its response to climate variability in the Welmel watershed, southeastern Ethiopia. The investigation utilized data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, and the Climate Hazards Group Infrared Precipitation with Stations accessed through the Google Earth Engine cloud computing platform. To evaluate the trend and response of net primary productivity to climatic factors, the Mann-Kendall and Theil Sen’s tests, the Pearson correlation coefficient, and stability analysis through the coefficient of variation of net primary productivity were utilized. The analysis of the temporal trend of net primary productivity revealed that the entire watershed, forest, wood, and cultivated land areas exhibited decreasing trends with net primary productivity values of -0.681, -4.361, -1.41, and − 3.25 g C m− 2/year, respectively. On the other hand, shrubs and grazing land displayed increasing trends of 1.15 and 2.04 g C m− 2/year, respectively. The wood and shrubland trends were statistically significant (p < 0.05). In the spatial analysis, an area of 64.6% showed a decreasing trend, whereas 33.78% displayed an increasing trend in net primary productivity values. The areas with stable and unstable variations in net primary productivity accounted for 26.47% and 8.02%, respectively. The net primary productivity of the land cover types and entire watershed were positively correlated with rainfall, however, only forests and woodlands were statistically significantly correlated (p < 0.05). The net primary productivity and land surface temperature were negatively correlated, except for forests and cultivated land, which were positively correlated. The results of this study provide essential information for managing ecosystems, supporting agricultural practices, and enhancing community resilience in a changing climate.

Land use dynamics and ecosystem service valuation in the Sanmenxia Reservoir wetland of the Yellow River

The Sanmenxia Reservoir wetland (SRW) serves as a critical ecological buffer in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Ongoing population growth and changes in land use have placed significant pressure on the wetland’s ecosystems. However, existing research has yet to establish a spatiotemporal analysis method to assess the impact of land use change on the ecosystem service value (ESV). This gap hinders the precise regulation and sustainable development of land resources. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the land use dynamics and ecological functions of the SRW, this study introduced a refined ESV evaluation method. This method revised the equivalent factors from spatial, temporal, and hydrological perspectives, with an emphasis on the impact of sediment discharge. Furthermore, the Patch-level Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model was employed to project the land use structure in 2030, and the corresponding ESV was analyzed. The study revealed the following: (1) Cropland constituted the primary land type in the SRW. Over the last two decades, the build-up area exhibited the most significant single land use dynamics, with the transformation of bare land to cropland spanning the widest range and largest area. (2) From 2000 to 2020, the ESV increased by 0.64 billion CNY, with the water body contributing almost all the increase. (3) The projected ESV for 2030 is 2.94 billion CNY, indicating an increase in ecological functions in the near future. Policy makers should recognizethe impact of land use change on ESV and implement measures to rebalance land use structure. While ensuring the preservation of cropland and the protection of lives and property, it is advisable to consider expanding the water body area to facilitate comprehensive sustainable development within SRW.

Bird Phylogenetic Diversity Increases With Temperature Worldwide

ABSTRACTAimTemperature significantly influences the composition and structure of biotic communities at large scales. While its role in shaping taxonomic diversity is well‐documented, its relationship with other facets of biodiversity, like phylogenetic diversity, remains poorly known. Understanding how and to which extent temperature contributes to global patterns of phylogenetic diversity compared to other biodiversity‐structuring factors is crucial for comprehending how bird assemblages are structured worldwide, predicting their response to global‐change drivers and supporting conservation policies focused on preserving bird genetic diversity and evolutionary history.LocationWorldwide.MethodsWe analyse the role of temperature in predicting bird regional phylogenetic richness (PD) and divergence (MPD) worldwide, before and after controlling for the effect of species richness (SR). We also assess the shape of this relationship in different biogeographic realms and compare its explanatory power with other key biodiversity‐structuring factors such as elevation, human impact index, net primary productivity and land use diversity.ResultsOur findings underscore the high significance and consistency of temperature as a key predictor positively associated with bird PD and MPD across the six main biogeographic realms, even after accounting for SR and latitude, suggesting that temperature modulates the intrinsic capacity of environments to support a diverse array of lineages. In addition, PD and MPD tended to increase at low elevations, but the human‐impact index did not effectively predict bird phylogenetic diversity at this scale. Furthermore, high PD was linked to regions with high primary productivity and high land‐use diversity, although both of these relationships were strongly mediated by SR.ConclusionsThis study unveils the key role of temperature in explaining bird phylogenetic diversity worldwide over other key biodiversity‐structuring factors and points to the profound implications that climate change will have on the amount of evolutionary history held in bird assemblages, beyond species extinctions or range shifts alone.

Spatial distribution and topographic gradient effects of habitat quality in the Chang-Zhu-Tan Urban Agglomeration, China

This study aimed to analyze spatio-temporal changes in habitat quality in Chang-Zhu-Tan Urban Agglomeration during the 2000–2020 period and explore its topographic gradient effects. Using land use data from this period, the InVEST model was employed to assess the spatio-temporal variations in habitat quality. The bivariate spatial autocorrelation model was used to analyze the spatial correlation characteristics between habitat quality and various topographical factors. Additionally, terrain factor analysis was utilized to study the terrain gradient effects on habitat quality in the study area. The results reveal that: (1) The primary land use changes in the study area from 2000 to 2020 predominantly involve substantial arable land and forest conversions into urban development. (2) The average habitat quality indices for 2000, 2010, and 2020 in the Chang-Zhu-Tan Urban Agglomeration stand at 0.651, 0.622, and 0.606, respectively, indicating a consistent declining trend in habitat quality. The distribution of habitat quality grades demonstrates a spatial pattern of “lower in the central surroundings, higher in the surroundings.” (3) The Chang-Zhu-Tan Urban Agglomeration shows significant positive correlations between habitat quality and topographical gradients. Spatial aggregation tendencies between habitat quality and topographical gradients primarily exhibit “high-high” and “low-low” clustering. (4) The habitat quality of the Chang-Zhu-Tan urban agglomeration exhibits a significant topographic gradient effect, primarily characterized by an increase in habitat quality with the rise of the topographic gradient. The study outcomes contribute to unveiling the spatiotemporal variations in habitat quality within the Chang-Zhu-Tan Urban Agglomeration. Moreover, leveraging different habitat types’ distinctive terrain distribution characteristics, it proposes targeted habitat conservation measures, thereby offering theoretical support for biodiversity conservation and territorial spatial planning in the study area.

LANDSCAPE CHANGES BASED ON HYDROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE WAE RIUAPA WATERSHED WEST SERAM REGENCY, MALUKU, INDONESIA

Changes in the Wae Riuapa River Basin landscape in West Seram Regency, Maluku, reflect complex ecological and social dynamics. The Wae Riuapa watershed is an integral part of the hydrological cycle in the region, influencing water availability, water quality, and geomorphological processes. This research aims to model changes in the landscape of the Wae Riuappa watershed regarding hydrological characteristics. The research method uses ArcGIS 10.3 for spatial analysis of 2010 and 2020 Landsat images and hydrooffice 12.0 software, BFLOW 3.0 module, a hydrological model for graphical separation of daily discharge. The results of modeling landscape changes in the Wae Riuappa watershed on hydrological characteristics obtained a regression model that depicts landscape changes as having a significant simultaneous and partial influence on discharge conditions in the Wae Riuappa watershed during the research period. The spatial pattern of area distribution for the nine land cover types in the study period was relatively similar. Widespread forest land cover still dominates the landscape of the Wae Riuapa watershed. However, the pattern of widespread distribution of changes is starting to decrease in primary and secondary forest land cover. Meanwhile, the distribution pattern of changes in agricultural land and mixed gardens and settlements has increased slowly and significantly. The results of a multi-temporal analysis of the hydrological characteristics of the Wae Riuapa watershed show that the daily discharge trend experiences multi-temporal fluctuations.

The Analysis of NPP Changes under Different Climatic Zones and under Different Land Use Types in Henan Province, 2001–2020

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is a crucial indicator of ecological environment quality. To better understand the carbon absorption and carbon cycling capabilities of Henan Province, this study investigates the trends and driving factors of NPP across different climatic zones and land use types. The Theil–Sen Median trend analysis method and the Mann–Kendall trend test are employed to monitor NPP changes from 2001 to 2020. The average annual NPP in Henan Province during this period was 414.61 gC·m−2·year−1, showing a significant increasing trend with a growth rate of 3.73 gC·m−2·year−1. Spatially, both the annual average NPP and its increase rate were higher in the western part of Henan compared to the eastern part, and NPP variability was more stable in the southern region than in the northern region. By classifying climatic zones and using the Geodetector method to assess NPP sensitivity to natural factors, the results show that climate and vegetation factors jointly influence NPP variations, with annual precipitation being the primary natural factor affecting NPP trends in Henan Province from 2001 to 2020. By analyzing the NPP gain and loss matrix, the impact of land use changes on NPP was evaluated. Forests had the highest average annual NPP at 483.52 gC·m−2·year−1, and the conversion of arable land to urban areas was identified as the primary land change type leading to NPP reductions. In the subtropical zone of Henan, forests, croplands, and grasslands exhibited higher NPP values and increase rates compared to those in the warm belt. This study provides new insights into the spatial variation of NPP caused by changes in climatic zones and land use types.

Evaluation of land use and geological effect on groundwater characteristics in Bandung metropolitan using a hydrochemical and statistical approach

Abstract Groundwater is often used as clean water since it requires less water treatment. However, the quality will depend on the environmental conditions and human activities. Our research is conducted in Bandung Metropolitan, an urbanized area where groundwater is preferable, but the quality is becoming concerning. The objective of this study is to determine whether natural or human activities have a greater impact on groundwater quality. A total of 113 samples were collected from nine geological conditions spanning three primary land use types. The samples were analyzed for seven major ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3 −, SO4 2 −, and Cl−), which occur naturally in natural water but may be elevated due to human activities. Based on the Piper diagram, fifty-three samples are categorized as Ca-HCO3, with the dominant cation being Ca2+ and the dominant anion being HCO3 −. Furthermore, the multivariate statistical analysis reveals that 74% of all ions are related to geological conditions and anthropogenic activities. In detail, high contents of Ca2+, as the dominant cation, are significantly correlated by all land uses and most geological formations. In addition, cation contents were significantly correlated with land uses, but the correlation varied for each type of geological formation. All land uses surely correlate with all major ions, but the geology depends on the type of formation.

Spatial assessment of soil resources on different land uses and slope gradient as a planning tool, in Ferenjua watershed, Ethiopia

Soil erosion, land degradation and climate change are the major environmental threats attributed to low agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. To reduce soil erosion and restore degraded lands, integrated soil and water conservation interventions have been implemented. However, the impacts of the intervention measures were not sufficiently studied due to the lack of baseline information. Therefore, this study was carried out to evaluate and understand the current conditions of biophysical resources in Ferenjua watershed, which is located in Gondar zuria district. In this study, more emphasis was given to the levels of total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorous (P), organic matter (OM), bulk density (BD), pH, moisture, texture and soil erosion. To collect the biophysical data, the watershed was divided into 144 grid-based sampling points with a resolution of 250 m by 250 m. In addition, the data were collected in 8 representative profile pits. Three primary land uses were identified from supervised land use and land cover classification and described as cultivated land (55.08 %), forestland (30.80 %), and grassland (14.12 %). Erosion hotspot map shows that >40 % of the watershed is moderately and highly susceptible to soil erosion. The highest BD (1.36 gm cm−3) was observed at Vertisols-dominated cultivated lands located in the flatlands, whereas, the lowest BD (1.28 gm cm−3) was observed under forestland. Regarding the results of TN, P, and OM, >60 % of the watershed was classified as having low to very low soil nutrient levels. Consequently, development interventions should be considered to restore degraded lands for the sustained use of resources in the watershed.

Evaluation and interpretation of landscapes from satellite imagery

Satellite imagery allows us to view landscapes from a bird’s eye view, providing a new dimension in appreciating the environments we inhabit. This alternative perspective has the potential to shape individual perceptions of landscapes and play a pivotal role in land management decision-making and communication. However, the interpretation and appreciation of landscapes seen in satellite imagery may vary among observers. This study investigates the relationship between individuals’ ability to interpret images from eye-level and satellite perspectives, their familiarity with the landscape, and their appreciation of land cover from this viewpoint. To achieve this, a survey was conducted presenting respondents with images of land cover classes captured at eye level and from satellite imagery of the Yungay municipality in Chile. Participants were asked to interpret the primary land use land cover (LULC) depicted in the imagery and indicate their appreciation of that landscape. Variation in the interpretation of LULC was observed between the image source and land cover type. For instance, forest classes seen in eye-level imagery were more accurately interpreted compared to satellite imagery, while the reverse was true for agriculture. These differences in interpretation also impacted the appreciation scores assigned to the landscapes in the images. Specifically, if respondents perceived an image to be dominated by a traditionally appreciated land cover (e.g., Native Vegetation), they provided a higher score, even if the image depicted another class (e.g., Plantation Forestry). These findings highlight that considering the influence of satellite imagery in shaping perception is crucial in supporting land management activities.

Spatio-Temporal Variations in Soil Erosion and Its Driving Forces in the Loess Plateau from 2000 to 2050 Based on the RUSLE Model

Assessing the spatio-temporal variability and driving forces of soil erosion on the Loess Plateau is critical for ecological and environmental management. In this paper, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model, the patch-generating land use simulation, and the Geographical Detector are used to investigate the spatio-temporal variations of the Loess Plateau’s soil erosion from 2000 to 2050. The results showed that: (1) The primary categories of soil erosion from 2000 to 2020 were moderate, mild, and slight, and the average level of soil erosion exhibited a decreasing and then an increasing tendency during the last 20 years. (2) Soil erosion was directly impacted by changes in land use, with cropland and forest being the primary land use and land cover changes in the study region. Cropland and construction land being turned into woodland between 2000 and 2020 resulted in a significant decrease in the severity of soil erosion. Projected soil erosion is expected to increase significantly between 2020 and 2050 due to arable land being converted into construction land. (3) The key variables impacting the spatial distribution of soil erosion were LUCC (Land-Use and Land-Cover Change), NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), and slope, and the interplay of these variables may increase their ability to explain soil erosion. Grasslands with an NDVI ranging from 0.9 to 1, rain ranging from 0.805 to 0.854 m, a slope above 35°, and a terrain elevation ranging from 1595 to 2559 m were identified as having a high risk of soil erosion. Soil erosion prevention and management efforts should focus on the ecological restoration of upland areas in the future.

The Influence of Land Use and Slope Variation to Soil Infiltration Rate on Semarang City, Indonesia

Abstract From 2018 to 2022, there have been 3 floods in Gunungpati District. One factor that influences flood in this area is the infiltration rate. Many factors influence infiltration rates, two of them being land use and slope. This study aimed to determine the distribution of land use and slope gradient in Gunungpati District using GIS-based spatial analysis. The results show that land use in the research area is divided into 5 classes: primary and secondary dry land forests; plantations; shrubs and grasslands; dryland farming; and settlements, paddy fields, bodies of water, and open land. Land use is dominated by settlements, paddy fields, bodies of water, and open land (33.7% of the total area). The slopes in the study area are divided into 5 classes: flat (&lt;8%), gentle (8—15%), wavy (15—25%), steep (25—40%), and very steep (&gt;40%). The wavy class dominates the slopes (29.3% of the total area). Based on these results, a moderate infiltration rate dominates the infiltration rate in the study area.

ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT DATA FROM GPS-MONITORED LIVESTOCK GUARDIAN DOGS (LGDS) AT TWO SHEEPFOLDS IN THE NORTH-WESTERN MARAMURES LAND, ROMANIA USING THE KERNEL DENSITY ESTIMATION METHOD. IMPLICATIONS FOR OUTDOOR TOURISM

The Carpathians and other mountainous regions around the world are renowned for their specific landscapes shaped by pastoralism, a millennia-old traditional and sustainable economic system. In Romania, this traditional occupation has an established place within the Romanian culture. In an environment where large predators are present, the livestock owners and shepherds have traditionally relied, and still do, on livestock guardian dogs (LGDs) to protect the flock against carnivores or theft, therefore, the dogs are perceived as an integral component of the traditional pastoral system. However, from late April until the end of September, many outdoor recreational activities like hiking, mountain trail running, or biking overlap with the pastoral calendar, creating a potential for conflict between two, very different categories of landscape users, with recurring incidents happening over the years. In this study, a winter GPS monitoring campaign was proposed, between November 2023 and January 2024 that used GPS professional collars to track the movements of two livestock guardian dogs stationed at two sheepfolds located at their winter bases in the hills at the foot of Ignis Mountains (part of the Romanian northern Carpathians) from northwestern Maramureș Land, Romania. The campaign generated point-based spatiotemporal data processed and analyzed in M. Excel and QGIS using Kernel density estimation as the main method to generate metrics and identify potential clusters of LGD activity in their usual environment. The results highlight high observational clusters near the winter folds but also lower observational clusters in areas situated hundreds of meters distance around the main compound, in certain locations. Although temporally limited, the results have the potential to help the understanding of the animal's preferred zone of habitation and substantiate future win-win cohabitation solutions that minimize conflictual encounters between the shepherds and their guardian dogs on one side, as primary land users, and outdoor recreationists as other landscape users.

Aquaculture Ponds Identification Based on Multi-Feature Combination Strategy and Machine Learning from Landsat-5/8 in a Typical Inland Lake of China

Inland aquaculture ponds, as an important land use type, have brought great economic benefits to local people but at the same time have caused many environmental problems threatening regional ecology security. Therefore, understanding the spatiotemporal pattern of aquaculture ponds and its potential influence on water quality is vital for the sustainable development of inland lakes. In this study, based on Landsat5/8 images, three types of land features, namely spectral features, index features, and texture features, and five machine learning algorithms, namely random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), artificial neural network (ANN), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), and Gaussian naive Bayes (GNB), were combined to identify aquaculture ponds and some other primary land use types around a typical inland lake of China. The results demonstrated that the XGBoost algorithm that integrated the three features performed the best among all groups of the five machine learning algorithms and the three features, with an overall accuracy of up to 96.15%. In particular, the texture features provided additional useful information besides the spectral features to allow more accurately separation of aquaculture ponds from other land use types and thus improve the land use mapping ability in complex inland lakes. Next, this study examined the tendency of aquaculture ponds and found a segmented increase mode, namely sharp increase during 1984–2003 and then slow elevation since 2003. Further positive correlation detected between the area of aquaculture ponds and the phytoplankton population dynamics suggest a likely influence of aquaculture activity on the lake water quality. This study provides an important scientific basis for the sustainable management and ecological protection of inland lakes.

Landing site choice for Luna-27 mission in the Moon South Polar Region

In this study, we examine the Russian automatic lunar missions “Luna-25,” “Luna-26,” and the scientific objectives and landing site of the “Luna-27″ spacecraft. The landing of “Luna-27″ is planned directly in the South Polar region, which, due to ballistic and engineering requirements, is confined to a sector extending from 51°E to 1°W in longitude and from 83°S to 79°S in latitude. This area is characterized by complex terrain, and to identify suitable landing territories, a suitability map has been created that takes into account the distribution of slopes, the degree of illumination, and visibility of Earth. A total of five sites measuring 30 × 15 km (landing ellipse) within the considered region meet such scientific and technical requirements as slope distributions of less than 7–10°, sunlight illumination of more than 35 %, and Earth visibility of more than 50 %. All landing sites are ranked by priority from 1 to 5 depending on the content of water equivalent of hydrogen (WEH) in the lunar soil. Site №1, by its characteristics, is considered the best and may be chosen as the primary landing site, while sites №2 and №3 could serve as backups. It is demonstrated that with increased landing precision, with a deviation probability from the given point up to 0.5 km, the number of suitable landing sites satisfying primarily scientific rather than engineering-technical safety criteria, which are also inherently met, significantly increases.

Landscape Drivers of Floods Genesis (Case Study: Mayo Mizao Peri-Urban Watershed in Far North Cameroon)

Landscape has significant effects on hydrological processes in a watershed. In the Sudano-Sahelian area, watersheds are subjected to a quick change in landscape patterns due to the human footprint, and the exact role of the actual landscape features in the modification of the hydrological process remains elusive. This study tends to assess the effects of landscape on the genesis of the runoff in the Mayo Mizao watershed. To achieve this goal, 62 infiltration tests were performed at different points and depths (5 cm and 20 cm) using the double-ring method and the Porchet method. The results show that the combination of many factors (soil type, land use, and farming practices) can guide the hydraulic conductivity behavior of soils. For example, at 5 cm depths, clayey-evolved soils, such as vertisols and halomorphic soils, inhibit infiltration, as opposed to non-evolved mineral soils, such as lithosols and clayey-sandy soils. However, at 20 cm depths, gray soils with halomorphic tendencies followed by vertisols have a low sensitivity to infiltration, as opposed to soils derived from loose materials and halomorphic soils. For a given soil type, rainfed crops are the primary land use that runs against infiltration. However, the effect of tillage varies according to the soil type. Finally, given the extent of vertisols and halomorphic soils in the Far North region of Cameroon in general, and in the Mayo Mizao watershed in particular, and regarding the increase in cultivated areas, a probable reduction in the infiltration capacity of soils in this region is to be expected in the medium term. The results of this study can be used as a basis for land-use planning and sustainable watershed management in semi-arid tropical zones.

元ㆍ安南 간 육상 교통 루트와 驛站

The primary transportation routes of the Yuan Dynasty, known as the postal routes, were developed to facilitate the movement of troops and military supplies. Later, these routes became important for official business and trade between Yuan and neighboring countries. Although land transportation routes connecting the central plains of China with Annam began to be established during the Tang Dynasty, they were not actively used until the Yuan Dynasty. The transportation routes between Yuan and Annam were straightened to shorten the travel time by eliminating detours and to enhance the stability and continuity of the routes by constructing postal stations every 60 li. The primary land transportation routes between the two countries were (1) Chongqing-Mengzi-Thang Long and (2) Chongqing-Yongzhou-Thang Long. The first route, departing from Chongqing in Yunnan Province, went directly through steep mountains to reach Mengzi, and then followed the Hong River into Annam. This was the route used by envoys from both countries before the Southern Song conquest; however, it was time-consuming due to the mountainous terrain. The second route was developed after Yuan took control of Yongzhou, becoming the fastest transportation route between the two countries and mainly used for envoys and trade. This route was established by Toghon, featuring a dense network of postal stations every 60 li within Annam, which intimidated the king of Annam. Since the establishment of these postal stations in 1284, Annamese envoys traveled along this route to Dadu every one to two years to deliver tributes, as well as to transport goods for the Yuan court. Annam’s tributes were used to supply luxuries for the imperial family, while gifts from Yuan were used as ceremonial items to enhance the authority of the king of Annam. During this period, Yongping, a postal station at the entrance to Annam, flourished as a hub for private trade.

A Comparative Study of Land Use Land Cover (LULC) Change Detection: A Case Study of Tehsil Babuzai, Swat (Pakistan)

Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, has experienced a fast population increase, substantially influencing land use and land cover (LULC), raising ecological and environmental issues. This study examines changes in LULC between 2001 and 2020 using US Geological Survey (USGS) satellite images. The paper analyses six primary land cover classes: farmland, built-up area, woodland, water bodies, rangeland, and barren Land using maximum likelihood supervised classification. The findings show a significant rise in rangeland (from 49.1% to 53.7%), built-up areas (from 8.5% to 13.7%), and barren Land (from 5.1% to 11.1%). On the other hand, there is a noticeable decline in the number of water bodies (from 2.1% to 1.6%), agriculture (from 21.2% to 12.2%), and forest cover (from 13.7% to 7.5%). These alterations underscore the detrimental consequences of urban growth on the area's natural resources, demanding prompt and deliberate planning to protect the ecosystem and guarantee sustainable development. This research is crucial for understanding land use changes' dynamics and impacts, providing valuable insights for policymakers and urban planners. It highlights the need for sustainable land management practices to mitigate adverse environmental effects and promote balanced regional development.