Foot-and-mouth Disease Prevention Research Articles

Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Foot and Mouth Disease in Selected Woredas of the West Omo Zone, Southwest Ethiopia.

Aim and Background: Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a prioritized transboundary animal disease, endemic in Ethiopia, and it has a high impact on cattle production and trade nationally and internationally. Methods: To ascertain the sero-prevalence and identify the exposure factors connected to a seropositive FMD in cattle, a cross-sectional study was conducted in three weredas of the West Omo Zone from January 2022 to February 2022. Multistage sampling was used to take one study wereda based on agroecology from the highland, midland, and lowland of the zone. Selection of cattle herd and blood samples from cattle were taken by using a simple random method. The Statistical Package for Social Science Version 25 was used to analyze the pertinent data once it had been entered and coded into Microsoft Excel. Results: The study area's FMD seroprevalence for individual cattle and at the herd level was 5.3% with a 95% confidence interval (3.51%–7.99%) and 77.78% (n= 9), respectively. The high herd level recorded during the current study was evidence that the disease has spread throughout the zone. Multinomial logistic regression analysis showed the age of the animal and study wereda are significantly(p<0.05) associated with the sero-prevalence of FMD in this study. High cattle movement to big markets and long exposure of old cattle to the disease may contribute to the significant association of the disease with these risk factors. Conclusion: This study showed that herd-level FMD seropositivity is high, necessitating the identification of specific FMD serotypes and the commencement of appropriate FMD prevention and control strategies in the zone.

PERAN PENYULUHAN DALAM KEGIATAN PENCEGAHAN DAN PENGENDALIAN PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU (PMK) BESERTA KENDALANYA DI KABUPATEN MOJOKERTO (The Role of Counseling in the Prevention and Control of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and its Constraints in Mojokerto Regency)

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in livestocks has become an epidemic in Mojokerto Regency which has caused significant economic losses, so it is necessary to carry out prevention and control. FMD prevention and control activities at the village and sub-district levels are facilitated by agricultural extension workers through Communication, Information and Education (CIE) counseling activities for breeders. This study aims to determine the role of counseling in prevention and control of FMD and the obstacles it faces. The data collection is based on online questionnaires which were distributed in 63 agriculture extension civil servants in 18 sub-districts in Mojokerto Regency. The research shows that majority of the officers have implemented CIE in all of their target areas. The counseling methods based on information technique used was direct counseling and a combination of direct and indirect counseling. The majority of counseling used printed media that contain specific materials of treatments. This study also measured the acceptance and support of stakeholders at the village level. Obstacles encountered in the field included coordination constraints, terrain and location of stables, negative issues that developed in the community and aggressive cattle conditions.

SOSIALISASI PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU PADA PETERNAK DI DESA BLANG PALA KECAMATAN PEUSANGAN SELATAN

Aceh is the second largest province infected with Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in 2022. This has caused huge losses for farmers, thus the purpose of this community service was as a form of socialization of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) for breeders in Blang Pala Village, Peusangan Selatan District Bireuen Regency. The method of implementing service activities was carried out by counseling related to the material of characteristics and prevention of FMD as well as assisting biosecurity activities in cattle pens. This activity was said to be successful with an increase in the knowledge and understanding of the village breeders regarding the characteristics of FMD and how to control it through biosecurity. Increased understanding of FMD was also evidenced by the increased awareness of farmers regarding the vaccination program as an effort to prevent FMD. Thus, it is necessary to have continuity from the academic community of the Animal Husbandry Study Program, Faculty of Agriculture, Almuslim University.

Emergence of a novel sublineage, MYMBD21 under SA-2018 lineage of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus serotype O in Bangladesh

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) hinders the growth of the livestock industry in endemic countries like Bangladesh. The management and prevention of FMD are severely impacted by the high mutation rate and subsequent frequent generation of newer genotypes of the causative agent, Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV). The current study was conducted in nine districts of Bangladesh during 2019–21 to characterize the circulating FMDV strains based on the VP1 sequence analysis, the major antigenic recognition site providing serotype specificity and high variability of FMDV. This study detected the first emergence of the SA-2018 lineage in Bangladesh along with the predominance of Ind-2001e (or Ind-2001BD1) sublineage of ME-SA topotype under serotype O during 2019–21. The mutational spectrum, evolutionary divergence analysis and multidimensional plotting confirmed the isolates collected from Mymensingh districts, designated as MYMBD21 as a novel sublineage under the SA-2018 lineage. Analysis of the amino acid sequence revealed several changes in the G-H loop, B-C loop and C-terminal region of VP1, revealing a 12–13% divergence from the existing vaccine strains and a 95% VP1 protein homology, with most of the mutations potentially considerable as vaccine escape mutations, evidenced by three-dimensional structural analysis. This is the first report on the emergence of the SA-2018 lineage of ME-SA topotype of FMDV serotype O in Bangladesh, as well as a possible mutational trend towards the emergence of a distinct sublineage under SA-2018 lineage, which calls for in-depth genome-wide analysis and monitoring of the FMD situation in the country to implement a strategic vaccination and effective FMD control program.

Epidemiological study and dairy farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices on foot and mouth disease in central Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is consistently ranked as the most economically significant viral disease and one of the top five livestock diseases in Ethiopia. Although FMD is endemic in Ethiopia, the epidemiology and the farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding FMD were poorly quantified. Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2021 to April 2022 to estimate the seroprevalence, identify the FMD serotypes, and assess the farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices on FMD in Addis Ababa city and Sebeta special zone, central Ethiopia. A total of 384 serum samples were collected from cattle and tested using a 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In this study, an overall 56% seroprevalence was recorded. Two types of FMD serotypes were detected in which serotype O was the dominant serotype (75.5%) followed by serotype A (45.5%). A significantly higher seroprevalence (P = 0.00) was recorded in Addis Ababa (85%) compared to Sebeta (28.7%). Seropositivity in older and semi-intensively managed cattle was 2.9 (95% CI: 1.36–6.50; P = 0.006) and 2.1 (95% CI: 1.34–3.26; P = 0.001) times higher compared to young and intensively managed cattle, respectively. A survey on knowledge, attitude, and practice of 103 farmers revealed that 90.2% knew of FMD and the majority of them can recognize its clinical pictures. However, 12.7% of farmers who knew FMD didn't practice any prevention methods. Additionally, 70% of the farmers responded that their cattle roamed outside of their farms for communal grazing, watering, breeding purposes, and vaccination which might put them more at risk of FMD. The current study demonstrated that the majority of farmers have gaps in biosecurity practices and vaccination of cattle against FMD. Therefore, educating farmers on FMD prevention measures is necessary for successful disease control programs.

Prevalence, distribution and epidemiological risk factors of foot-and-mouth disease among the cattle population of Bangladesh: A meta-analysis

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a devastating viral infection of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease turned into an endemic in Bangladesh causing prodigious impairment to the nation’s economy and livestock population. For further usage, developing a detailed summary of the disease condition in Bangladesh is imperative. Hence, this study identified the prevalence of FMD among cattle populations accompanying by potential risk factors and climatic variables. Using the Jamvoi 1.2.27 software, the authors analysed 30 studies for estimating the random model effect function. Based on the meta-analysis, the overall pooled prevalence of FMD was 25% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 15-35%). The research professed a significant difference between the prevalence rate of males (33%, CI: 22-45%) and females (26%, CI: 14-39%). Moreover, the study reported a noteworthy line of the tendency for the increasing rate of prevalence in adult and old animals than in young individuals. Furthermore, the results showed high prevalence rates in dry season compared to wet season. Thus, this study will permit the government to implement an immediate control program. Moreover, each data gathered will help the prevention of FMD.

Detection of clinical and subclinical Foot and Mouth Disease Virus in Cattle in Al-Najaf Province.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly transmissible disease caused by Aphthovirus of the family Picornaviridae. This study aimed to investigate the serological approach (non-structural protein [NSP] analysis) of 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to diagnose FMD cattle in vaccinated and unvaccinated animals. A total of 84 serum specimens, including non-vaccinated, single-vaccinated, and multi-vaccinated samples, were collected from four districts in Baghdad Province, Iraq, to evaluate the antibodies to NSP of the FMD virus. The ELISA was used to detect antibodies (NSP) of FMDV in the serum of cattle. The result showed that the seroprevalence was estimated at 34% (29/84) in farm animals. The seroprevalence rates of FMD in relation to the age of infected animals were obtained at 21%, 7%, and 6% in 9-23-, 24-36-, and ≥ 36-month-old groups, respectively. The consequences of the examination of the sera from naive, immunized, and non-immunized infected farm animals applying 3ABC-ELISA were presented; accordingly, the incidence rates of FMD infection in non-vaccinated and vaccinated animals were 18 (75%) and 11 (18%) respectively. Negative results were recorded in the immunized group 49 (82%) higher than in the non-immunized group 6 (25%). Evaluation of NSP antibodies to isolate vaccinated animals from infected ones showed that the application of these assays was significantly useful for FMD prevention and control management programs in infected areas.

Serological surveillance for FMDV antibodies serotypes O and A in cattle in Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, febrile and highly contagious disease caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), mainly affecting cloven-hoofed animals. FMDV antibody detection can provide a timely understanding of the immune level after vaccination. In this study, 22,902 cattle blood samples from free-range households and large-scale farms were collected from eight districts in Tongliao city, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China, from January to December 2020. Serum antibodies against serotypes O and A FMDV were detected by liquid-phase blocking ELISA. The results showed that the positive rates of serotypes O and A FMDV antibodies in Tongliao were 91.21% and 90.18%, respectively. The positive rates of serotypes O and A FMDV antibodies in 8 regions ranged from 85.80% to 98.41% and 84.48% to 96.77%, respectively. The positive rates of serotypes O antibodies in cattle from households and farms were 82.15% to 97.41%, and 90.51% to 99.32%, respectively. The positive rates of serotypes A FMDV antibodies in cattle from households and farms ranged from 83.47% to 96.77% and 84.98% to 97.30%, respectively. The positive rates of serotype O FMDV antibody in spring, summer, autumn and winter were 92.68%, 94.40%, 88.84% and 84.32%, respectively, and those of serotype A FMDV antibody were 93.50%, 92.19%, 87.26% and 88.86%, respectively. The results indicated that the immunization level of FMD was high in Tongliao city, and all positive rates exceeded the requirement that the qualified rate of immune antibody should be kept above 70% all year long according to the National Compulsory Immunization Plan of Animal Epidemic Diseases in 2020. However, vaccination and antibody detection of cattle raised by households in autumn and winter should be strengthened. The results of this study can provide a basis for authorities to formulate FMD prevention and control plans.

Contributions of village animal health workers to foot-and-mouth disease control in Cambodia.

Local animal health services in rural communities in Cambodia are mainly provided by village animal health workers (VAHWs), although the participation and contribution of VAHWs to livestock disease prevention are uncertain. The participation of the VAHWs as identified by their 'dropout rate' was examined in a desktop review in December 2020 of the national data on VAHWs recorded between 2011 and 2020. The contribution and involvement of VAHWs in disease prevention programmes were examined in a survey conducted between February and March 2014, then analyzed in the context of other surveys of VAHW knowledge, attitudes and practices. The survey involved guided group discussion with VAHWs (n=198) from the two Cambodian provinces of Kampong Cham and Pursat. This study identified that VAHWs generated less than 22% of their annual household incomes from animal health services. Less than one-third had vaccinated livestock against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), with none having vaccinated cattle every 6 months during the study period, and nearly half of the VAHWs having never vaccinated their own cattle against FMD. As no privately provided FMD vaccination services occurred in these communities, with all vaccines delivered through the government-subsidized programme, the findings confirmed that VAHWs only vaccinated animals against FMD when vaccines were made available by the Government. The desktop review found that the number of VAHWs in 2020 declined by more than 24% since 2017, and the proportion of female VAHWs was consistently low, with a mean of 8.26 (±1.019). These findings confirm findings from previous studies that identified considerable weaknesses in the VAHW system in Cambodia, particularly in contributing to FMD control. Cambodian animal health authorities require more effective policies to strengthen the current VAHW system, improving their services delivery; their retention as 'active'; their development of more sustainable roles with lower 'dropout' rates and the prolonged gender inequity. With the limited availability of government-subsidized FMD vaccination currently, extension programmes that engage VAHWs and farmers in seeking privately funded and delivered FMD vaccination that incorporates appropriate multivalent FMD serotype vaccines of high quality, delivered in small dose vials from a robust cold chain, is suggested. This strategy would assist VAHWs to contribute to the provision of private livestock vaccination services that are likely essential for sustainable FMD prevention and control in Cambodia.

Epidemiological Characteristics of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in the Republic of Korea, 2014–2019

This study describes the epidemiological characteristics of six epidemics of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the Republic of Korea between 2014 and 2019. A total of 223 outbreaks had been confirmed in 40 municipalities across nine provinces. Most farms with FMD (194, 87%) were located in three densely populated livestock areas (Chungcheongnam-do, Gyeonggi-do, and Chungcheongbuk-do). More cases of FMD were found in farms with more than 1,000 pigs or 50 cattle (risk ratios = 1.27 for pigs; 9.46 for Korean native cattle) and fattening pigs. In farms affected by FMD, the proportion of animals with vaccine antibodies was low (5%–50% for Korean native beef cattle farms with FMD in 2017 vs. 97.5% in the surveillance in 2016). Effective control of FMD can be achieved through strict biosecurity measures, proper vaccination, regionalized management, and instilling awareness of FMD prevention in farmers.

Advances in Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Proteins Regulating Host Innate Immunity.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep. The disease is caused by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) which has a non-enveloped virion with icosahedral symmetry that encapsulates a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome of ∼8.4 kb. FMDV infection causes obvious immunosuppressive effects on the host. In recent years, studies on the immunosuppressive mechanism of FMDV have become a popular topic. In addition, studies have shown that many FMDV proteins are involved in the regulation of host innate immunity and have revealed mechanisms by which FMDV proteins mediate host innate immunity. In this review, advances in studies on the mechanisms of interaction between FMDV proteins and host innate immunity are summarized to provide a comprehensive understanding of FMDV pathogenesis and the theoretical basis for FMD prevention and control.

Assessing the impact of climate change on the spatio-temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease risk for elephants

Elephants are the largest extant terrestrial animals and are important for maintaining regional ecosystem balance and community diversity. However, poaching, population growth, habitat fragmentation, and viruses are major threats to global elephant populations. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the major threats to the health of elephants. Global warming has a serious impact on wildlife and accelerates the spread of viruses. In this study, the effects of climate change on the risk of disease in elephants were evaluated based on 1833 sites with reported FMD cases. Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) was used to model the current and future geographic distributions of FMD and to assess the risk of FMD in elephants under climate change. The results showed that the average annual temperature and annual precipitation were higher in elephant habitats than in the range of the FMD virus. The mean temperature in the driest quarter, temperature seasonality, annual mean temperature, and precipitation in the driest month had relatively large contributions to the risk of FMD, with a cumulative contribution rate of 82.8%. Both Asian elephants and African elephants had high overlap with the FMD virus with respect to altitude, annual mean temperature, and annual precipitation. An overall high risk of disease was detected at a certain band, mainly concentrated from 10°N to 50°N in the northern hemisphere and from 10°S to 35°S in the southern hemisphere. The risk of FMD was higher for the Asian elephant than the African elephant. The FMD risk increased gradually from the southeast to northwest in habitats of the Asian elephant, and presented a pattern of high north–south risk and low intermediate risk in the habitats of the African elephant. The area proportions of high risk, medium risk, and low risk in the distribution of both the Asian elephant and African elephant were all higher than the proportions of all risk types worldwide. Under global warming, the FMD risk was not expected to change significantly in most of the habitat areas of the Asian elephant or the African elephant in the 2050s and 2070s. Moreover, the areas and proportions of high risk, medium risk, and low risk were likely to change slightly. These results could benefit the conservation of elephants and provide relevant data for the prevention of FMD in high-risk areas under climate change.

Detection of an emerging novel sublineage Ind2001BD1 and lineage PanAsia of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O in cattle in Manikgonj district of Bangladesh, 2018

Background:Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic disease of cloven-hoofed animals in Bangladesh and multiple outbreaks occur every year because of the FMD virus (FMDV).Aim:The aim of the present investigation was to determine the molecular characterization of the VP1 coding region of FMDV serotype O outbreak in cattle.Methods:A total of four tongue epithelial specimens were collected from clinically FMD-positive cattle during June 2018 in Manikgonj district of Bangladesh.Results:All four isolates were recorded positive for FMDV serotype O. The phylogenetic analysis showed that two isolates were clustered within an emerging novel sublineage Ind2001BD1 under lineage Ind2001 of FMDV serotype O, which was identified during 2012–2016 in Bangladesh. One isolate was clustered within the lineage PanAsia of FMDV serotype O and was closely related to an isolate identified in Nepal in 2009. The phylogenetic reconstruction revealed that all the four isolates belong to the Middle East–South Asia topotype.Conclusion:Therefore, multiple lineages of the FMDV serotype O are circulating among the cattle in the outbreak area, which make it more complex for the FMD control program in Bangladesh. A comprehensive study on the genetic characteristics of FMDV across the country is required for effective FMD prevention and control strategy.

Risk factors of foot and mouth disease in an endemic area on low vaccination rate in Xayaboury province of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR).

In Xayaboury province, located in the northern region of Lao PDR, the foot and mouth disease (FMD) vaccination campaign just began in 2009. Up until now, a small number of farms have been vaccinated. When FMD outbreaks occur, it is interesting to determine the risk factors of FMD, especially in the area where vaccination rates are low. The questionnaire survey, using a case-control design at the household level, was carried out. From 59 villages with a total number of 434 households, 181 households who experienced FMD were assigned as case households, 146 households without FMD occurrence inside the outbreak villages as inside control households, and 107 households without FMD occurrence outside the outbreak villages as outside control households. Household owners were interviewed. The logistic regression model was used to identify the relationship between FMD occurrence (dependent variable) and the collected data (independent variables), including the social status of livestock owners, FMD prevention strategies, and farm locations. A non-parametric test was performed to determine the association of FMD and network parameters of animal movements among villages. In general, results show that a limited number of holders did vaccinate animals before the outbreaks (13.8-17.8%). The results indicated that livestock owners who had known information about FMD before the outbreaks had been less severely affected by the FMD outbreak than the owners who had not known information about FMD (P < 0.01, OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.09-0.29). Before the outbreaks, higher FMD risk was observed in owners who sold the livestock through animal traders (P < 0.01, OR 4.76, 95% CI 1.68-13.50). Spatial data show that households in the community closer to the main roads had higher FMD risk (P < 0.01, OR 4.76, 95% CI 1.68-13.50). In addition, the network parameters including in-degree, out-degree, and betweenness indicated that the villages with high movements of livestock were at high risk of FMD (P < 0.05). The present study emphasized the importance of the government units to distribute the information about FMD to all livestock farmers in Xayaboury. Disease awareness and prevention strategy should be prioritized in areas close to high density communities and in the trading of livestock.

Review of epidemiological risk models for foot-and-mouth disease: Implications for prevention strategies with a focus on Africa.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious transboundary disease that affects domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animal species. The aim of this review was to identify and critically assess some modelling techniques for FMD that are well supported by scientific evidence from the literature with a focus on their use in African countries where the disease remains enzootic. In particular, this study attempted to provide a synopsis of the relative strengths and weaknesses of these models and their relevance to FMD prevention policies. A literature search was conducted to identify quantitative and qualitative risk assessments for FMD, including studies that describe FMD risk factor modelling and spatiotemporal analysis. A description of retrieved papers and a critical assessment of the modelling methods, main findings and their limitations were performed. Different types of models have been used depending on the purpose of the study and the nature of available data. The most frequently identified factors associated with the risk of FMD occurrence were the movement (especially uncontrolled animal movement) and the mixing of animals around water and grazing points. Based on the qualitative and quantitative risk assessment studies, the critical pathway analysis showed that the overall risk of FMDV entering a given country is low. However, in some cases, this risk can be elevated, especially when illegal importation of meat and the movement of terrestrial livestock are involved. Depending on the approach used, these studies highlight shortcomings associated with the application of models and the lack of reliable data from endemic settings. Therefore, the development and application of specific models for use in FMD endemic countries including Africa is encouraged.

The Effectiveness of a Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak Control Programme in Thailand 2008–2015: Case Studies and Lessons Learned

Three Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in northern Thailand that occurred during the implementation of the national FMD strategic plan in 2008–2015 are described to illustrate the lessons learned and to improve the prevention and control of future outbreaks. In 2008, during a FMD outbreak on a dairy farm, milk delivery was banned for 30 days. This was a part of movement management, a key strategy for FMD control in dairy farms in the area. In 2009, more than half the animals on a pig farm were affected by FMD. Animal quarantine and restricted animal movement played a key role in preventing the spread of FMD. In 2010, FMD infection was reported in a captive elephant. The suspected source of virus was a FMD-infected cow on the same premises. The infected elephant was moved to an elephant hospital that was located in a different province before the diagnosis was confirmed. FMD education was given to elephant veterinarians to promote FMD prevention and control strategies in this unique species. These three cases illustrate how differences in outbreak circumstances and species require the implementation of a variety of different FMD control and prevention measures. Control measures and responses should be customized in different outbreak situations.

Spatiotemporal analysis of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in the Republic of Kazakhstan, 1955 - 2013

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) poses a significant obstacle to international trade and economic development, and for that reason, FMD prevention, control and eradication are major goals guiding animal health policy in most countries. The purpose of this study was to conduct a retrospective spatiotemporal analysis of FMD outbreaks among livestock in the Republic of Kazakhstan (RK) from 1955 to 2013. During that time, several FMD control strategies were implemented in RK, which culminated with the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) recognition of RK as a country that is FMD-free with partial vaccination (2015). Here, we describe and analyse the changes in spatial and temporal dynamics of FMD under different control strategies that were utilized as the country progressively moved towards eradication of the disease. A total number of 5,260 FMD outbreaks of serotype O and A (including the A22 lineage) were recorded in the cattle, pig and small ruminant populations of RK during that period. We found that outbreaks occurred in spatiotemporal clusters only prior to 1970, which is before ring vaccination around outbreaks was first employed. This finding suggests that ring vaccination substantially reduced local spread and prevented large FMD epidemics in the country. Disease incidence steadily decreased after the implementation of ring vaccination and culling of infected animals, with spatiotemporal clusters only occurring as a result of an introduction of an antigenically distinct variant of serotype A. From 1955 to 1984, FMD outbreaks demonstrated two seasonal peaks of incidence in the spring and fall. In contrast, only the peak in spring was observed between 1984 and 2013. Quantitative knowledge on how different policy and alternative control strategies contributed to RK achieving FMD-free status could improve prospects for continued control in RK and inform control strategies in other FMD-endemic regions.

Spatio-temporal patterns of foot-and-mouth disease transmission in cattle between 2007 and 2015 and quantitative assessment of the economic impact of the disease in Niger.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Niger, with outbreaks occurring every year. Recently, there was an increasing interest from veterinary authorities to implement preventive and control measures against FMD. However, for an efficient control, improving the current knowledge on the disease dynamics and factors related to FMD occurrence is a prerequisite. The objective of this study was therefore to obtain insights into the incidence and the spatio-temporal patterns of transmission of FMD outbreaks in Niger based on the retrospective analysis of 9-year outbreak data. A regression tree analysis model was used to identify statistically significant predictors associated with FMD incidence, including the period (year and month), the location (region), the animal-contact density and the animal-contact frequency. This study provided also a first report on economic losses associated with FMD. From 2007 to 2015, 791 clinical FMD outbreaks were reported from the eight regions of Niger, with the number of outbreaks per region ranging from 5 to 309. The statistical analysis revealed that three regions (Dosso, Tillabery and Zinder), the months (September, corresponding to the end of rainy season, to December and January, i.e., during the dry and cold season), the years (2007 and 2015) and the density of contact were the main predictors of FMD occurrence. The quantitative assessment of the economic impacts showed that the average total cost of FMD at outbreak level was 499euros, while the average price for FMD vaccination of one outbreak was estimated to be more than 314euros. Despite some limitations of the clinical data used, this study will guide further research into the epidemiology of FMD in Niger and will promote a better understanding of the disease as well as an efficient control and prevention of FMD.

Benefit-Cost Analysis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccination at the Farm-Level in South Vietnam.

This study aimed to analyze the financial impact of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in cattle at the farm-level and the benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of biannual vaccination strategy to prevent and eradicate FMD for cattle in South Vietnam. Production data were collected from 49 small-scale dairy farms, 15 large-scale dairy farms, and 249 beef farms of Long An and Tay Ninh province using a questionaire. Financial data of FMD impacts were collected using participatory tools in 37 villages of Long An province. The net present value, i.e., the difference between the benefits (additional revenue and saved costs) and costs (additional costs and revenue foregone), of FMD vaccination in large-scale dairy farms was 2.8 times higher than in small-scale dairy farms and 20 times higher than in beef farms. The BCR of FMD vaccination over 1 year in large-scale dairy farms, small-scale dairy farms, and beef farms were 11.6 [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 6.42–16.45], 9.93 (95% CI 3.45–16.47), and 3.02 (95% CI 0.76–7.19), respectively. The sensitivity analysis showed that varying the vaccination cost had more effect on the BCR of cattle vaccination than varying the market price. This benefit-cost analysis of biannual vaccination strategy showed that investment in FMD prevention can be financially profitable, and therefore sustainable, for dairy farmers. For beef cattle, it is less certain that vaccination is profitable. Additional benefit-cost analysis study of vaccination strategies at the national-level would be required to evaluate and adapt the national strategy to achieve eradication of this disease in Vietnam.

Foot-and-mouth disease vaccines

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease affects many areas of the world, often causing extensive epizootics in livestock, mostly farmed cattle and swine, although sheep, goats and many wild species are also susceptible. In countries where food and farm animals are essential for subsistence agriculture, outbreaks of FMD seriously impact food security and development. In highly industrialized developed nations, FMD endemics cause economic and social devastation mainly due to observance of health measures adopted from the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). High morbidity, complex host-range and broad genetic diversity make FMD prevention and control exceptionally challenging. In this article we review multiple vaccine approaches developed over the years ultimately aimed to successfully control and eradicate this feared disease.