Prevalence Of Waterborne Diseases Research Articles

GROUND WATER QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH IN DUNGARPUR DISTRICT OF RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Abstract. Dungarpur, one of the most backward districts of India, is a predominantly tribal region of Rajasthan state. Ground water is the major source of drinking water in the region. High concentrations of Fluoride (F) and Iron (Fe) have been reported in the region which poses high risk of rampant water-borne diseases. This study evaluates the ground water quality for drinking purpose in terms of 10 hydro-geochemical and two biological parameters in context of causative factors like land use and geology of the region. The occurrence of water borne diseases in resident population has been examined in association with quality of drinking water and priority areas for policy intervention have been identified. Water samples have been collected from 173 drinking water sources and 346 households consuming water from the selected sources have been surveyed for prevalence of water borne diseases. Water quality surfaces have been mapped in terms of F, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Fe, alkalinity, Faecal Coliform (FC), E. Coli, and Water Quality Index (WQI) computed on the basis of 10 geochemical parameters, using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method. Results reveal that the north-eastern part comprising Aspur, Sabla and part of Sagwara tehsils predominantly has ‘very poor’ to ‘unsuitable’ water quality. The western part has excessive faecal contamination. Entire district has high levels of TDS and hardness, while excessive Fe and F occur in specific regions. Disease incidence closely corresponds to the geochemical and microbial composition of water. Higher values of WQI correspond with occurrence of Phyllites and Mica Schists.

A systematic review on water accessibility and safety in Ghana: The plausibility to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 by 2030

Background: Water is essential in everyday life hence, there is a need for it to be available in quality and quantity to all. This study aimed to review relevant published studies on water accessibility and safety in Ghana from 2015 to 2022 to determine the plausibility of Ghana achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 by 2030.
 Methodology: A systematic review was conducted based on the PRISMA guidelines using four databases including ProQuest, Science Direct, Web of Science and Scopus. Studies with data on specified keywords and published in English from January 2015 to June 2022 were included in this study. Duplicated titles were removed and the title, abstract and full text of remained studies were reviewed by two independent coders. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes.
 Results: Ten studies met the criteria and the majority of them used qualitative design (60%). Five main themes were identified including; causes of water contamination, the prevalence of waterborne diseases, types of water sources, implemented policies and challenges for policy implementation. The government implemented policies to provide safe and potable drinking water for the citizen and now, about 72% of the population have access to treated pipe water. Some challenges facing implemented policies include political interest in illegal mining, inadequate waste disposal facilities, and poverty.
 Conclusion: This study shows that Ghana can achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6.1which is "Access to clean and affordable water for all" by 2030. The government, public health organizations and stakeholders should work together to alleviate the challenges faced in achieving this goal.

Prevalence of Water Borne Diseases in Flood Affected Areas of District Khairpur Mirs, Pakistan

Objective: The purpose of this study to observe the impact of flood on the prevalence of water borne disease. Methodology: A cross sectional observational study was conducted from July 2022 to September 2022 in flood affected areas of district Khairpur Mirs, Pakistan. The study was conducted on 910 patients after taking informed consent. Results: In this study 61% patients were males, 36% were female whereas only 3% participants were transgender. Majority of the patients belongs to rural areas while few belong to urban areas. Majority of the patients were of 01 to 10 years of age while only 43 patients were of age from 71- 80 years. Disease wise 397 case were of malaria, 156 patients were of diarrhea, 75 patients were of dysentery, 66 cases were of cholera, 89 cases were of typhoid fever, 76 cases were of skin diseases, 51 cases were of hepatitis. By keeping in view policy makers can take serious steps to treat the residents of district as well as took preventive measure to rescue the residents of district Khairpur Mirs. Conclusion: This study concludes that due to flood water accumulation water borne diseases increased. Among whole diseases malaria was on top with 44%, diarrhea was on second number with 17% while typhoid was on third number with 10% cases Keywords: Prevalence, Water borne diseases, Flood, Malaria, Diarrhea, Dysentery, Cholera, Typhoid fever, Skin diseases, Hepatitis.

Improved Ecosystem Services and Environmental Gentrification after Rehabilitating Brazilian Urban Streams

The high levels of environmental pollution observed in urban freshwater ecosystems result in losses of ecosystem goods and services, reducing the well-being of human populations in densely populated tropical cities. The Belo Horizonte Metropolitan Region (BHMR) resembles other megacities in the Global South, with inadequate collection and treatment of domestic sewage being an important source of environmental degradation. However, urban stream rehabilitation can improve ecosystem quality and the physical and mental well-being of local citizens. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess whether the rehabilitation of three BHMR streams and the increased provision of ecosystem goods and services for local residents were associated with environmental gentrification and public health issues. To achieve this objective, we asked three questions. (i) Was there socioeconomic improvement in the households located near the rehabilitated streams? (ii) Did property values appreciate near the rehabilitated streams? (iii) Was the relative incidence of diseases decreased in the residents living near the rehabilitated streams? We tested three hypotheses. (H1) The socioeconomic profile of the households in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams improved. (H2) The property values of residences in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams increased. (H3) The incidence of waterborne and other types of diseases in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams decreased. To answer the first question and hypothesis, we compared 2000 to 2010 census tracts in the areas neighboring the rehabilitated streams with others in the municipality of Belo Horizonte (BH). We observed non-significant socioeconomic and demographic differences. To answer the second question and hypothesis, we used real estate transactions between 2009 and 2018 using hedonic models. After controlling for multiple interacting variables, we observed real estate appreciation after stream rehabilitation. To answer the third question and hypothesis, we analyzed the association between the prevalence of waterborne diseases, vector-borne diseases, and other diseases in the residents living near the rehabilitated streams. To do so, we analyzed hospitalization data from 2005 to 2016 for residents neighboring the streams versus BH. We observed a significant increase in the prevalence of waterborne and vector-transmitted diseases until two years after the stream rehabilitation, followed by a decrease until 2010. Trends for other types of diseases differed from these and mostly followed the general tendencies of BH, indicating different temporal variations. Our results highlight that ecosystem goods and services fostered by urban stream rehabilitation have potential contributions to the well-being of urban populations. The economic analyses applied in the paper have clear policy implications in support of urban stream rehabilitation. Although South American countries lack mandatory rehabilitation investments, Belo Horizonte’s example can inspire other interventions in tropical megacities.

Spatial estimation of groundwater quality, hydrogeochemical investigation, and health impacts of shallow groundwater in Kabul city, Afghanistan

The management of groundwater in densely populated areas with no centralized water treatment is critical for the prevention of diseases and maintaining sanitation. Here, we determine the bacteriological and chemical characteristics of groundwater in Kabul city, a resource that 4.1 million individuals rely on. Groundwater samples were analyzed from 41 newly established piezometric wells across Kabul, and data were compared with the last detailed study, undertaken in 2007, to understand contamination trends in an area that has undergone significant development and social changes. Piper diagrams, Gibbs diagrams, correlation analysis, and bivariate plots examine the hydrogeochemical and natural occurring processes of groundwater. The average concentration of cations followed the order Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+, and anions HCO3− > NO3− > Cl− > SO42− > F with Gibbs diagrams indicating mainly rock-weathering influence groundwater chemistry. An increase in nitrate (NO3−) and E. coli indicates anthropogenic activities impacting the shallow groundwater quality, with significantly elevated nitrate (over 50 mg/L) and E. coli (up to 250 CFU/100 mL). The increasing presence of E. coli and NO3− in the shallow groundwater of Kabul city in turn suggests problematic links to the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Additionally, the water quality index (WQI) was used to assess groundwater quality, and rank its suitability for drinking purposes. The WQI analysis showed that less than 35% of shallow groundwater samples had good water quality. The findings of this study are crucial for the development and sustainable management of groundwater in the city. In short term, we propose interventions such as point-of-use (POU) water purification which may offer temporary respite for waterborne disease prevention. Kabul city requires immediate attention to developing sustainable groundwater management policies, expansion of the water supply network, groundwater quality monitoring, and wastewater management.

Analysis of sanitation and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria

Waterborne diseases (i.e., diarrhea, dracunculiasis, dysentery, typhoid fever, malaria, scabies, ringworm, cholera, hepatitis B, streptococci, and onchocerciasis) are linked to a significant disease burden worldwide. This work has thus established a relationship between access to improved sanitation, potable water supply, and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria, by analyzing the data sourced from the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Federal Republic of Nigeria. The results showed that there was water scarcity (< 42% access) in the southern part of Ondo State. There was inadequate access to improved sanitation (< 30% access) in both the southern and northern parts of the State. Meanwhile, Southern Ondo State had the highest (> 320%) prevalence of waterborne diseases. There also existed a negatively moderate correlation: a substantial relationship between the access to a potable water supply (APW) (%) and the occurrence of waterborne diseases (WBD) (%) in Ondo State and between the occurrence of WBD (%) and improved sanitation (IS) (%) in the State. There existed a low correlation: definite but small relationship between the percentage of people with APW and the percentage of people with IS (%). This study has used the multiple linear regression model to develop a relationship equation using WBD as a dependent variable and APW and IS as independent variables. The first twelve elements (or LGAs) of Ondo State were used for modeling, while the last six were used to validate the results obtained. Equations generated were validated through residuals by observing the conditions of homoscedasticity, normality, and autocorrelation. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency was estimated to be about 80%. The spatial variability analysis was also done using inverse distance weighting. Therefore, it can be said that the modeled equation was quite good in predicting past and future waterborne diseases in Ondo State.

Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in Sudoorpashchim Province

Introduction: Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation, and lack of personal hygiene are the major causes of waterborne diseases. Water-induced health problem includes typhoid, acute gastroenteritis, diarrhea, dysentery, and hepatitis. In the Sudoorpashchim province, people suffer from these water-related diseases, and the frequency of the problem is intense in the summer. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of waterborne diseases in Sudoorpashchim province, far western region of Nepal. Methods: The data was collected from the provincial health directorate at Dipayal and analysed using the Origin 2010 software Results: The findings reveal that the prevalence of waterborne diseases gradually decreased as compared to last four to five years and attended 5.6% in FY 2019/2020, signifying an improvement in the personal hygiene of the people. Conclusions: The prevalence of waterborne diseases sharply decreased in the FY 2019/2020, indicate the rectification in the personal hygiene of people.

WASH and Health in Sindhupalchowk District of Nepal after the Gorkha Earthquake

An earthquake of magnitude 7.8 MW and 6.8 MW struck Nepal on 25 April and 12 May, 2015, respectively, which caused massive damage. In such crises, understanding the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) situation is of paramount importance. Therefore, we aimed to assess the WASH situation and its impact on health, particularly in the Sindhupalchowk district. A questionnaire survey and microbial analysis of water samples were conducted. Descriptive statistics and parametric and non-parametric statistical tests were employed. The results revealed that 97.1% of water samples from the source during the pre-monsoon season and 98.5% during the monsoon season had fecal contamination. Similarly, 92.8% of water samples during the pre-monsoon season and 96.7% during the monsoon season at point of use (PoU) had fecal contamination. Furthermore, water consumption was comparatively less during the pre-monsoon season. The increase in water consumption improved hygiene behavior and lowered the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Similarly, less water consumption affected water handling behavior; for example, the cleaning interval of storage vessels was less frequent. An increase in cleaning interval resulted in fecal contamination of water at PoU. The findings of this study can be useful in the review of existing WASH policy and plans and integration with the disaster management plan for disaster risk reduction.

Prevalence and predictors of water-borne diseases among elderly people in India: evidence from Longitudinal Ageing Study in India, 2017–18

BackgroundIndia suffers from a high burden of diarrhoea and other water-borne diseases due to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene practices among human population. With age the immune system becomes complex and antibody alone does not determine susceptibility to diseases which increases the chances of waterborne disease among elderly population. Therefore the study examines the prevalence and predictors of water-borne diseases among elderly in India.MethodData for this study was collected from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI), 2017–18. Descriptive statistics along with bivariate analysis was used in the present study to reveal the initial results. Proportion test was applied to check the significance level of prevalence of water borne diseases between urban and rural place of residence. Additionally, binary logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the association between the outcome variable (water borne diseases) and the explanatory variables.ResultsThe study finds the prevalence of water borne disease among the elderly is more in the rural (22.5%) areas compared to the urban counterparts (12.2%) due to the use of unimproved water sources. The percentage of population aged 60 years and above with waterborne disease is more in the central Indian states like Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh followed by the North Indian states. Sex of the participate, educational status, work status, BMI, place of residence, type of toilet facility and water source are important determinants of water borne disease among elderly in India.ConclusionElderly people living in the rural areas are more prone to waterborne diseases. The study also finds state wise variation in prevalence of waterborne diseases. The elderly people might not be aware of the hygiene practices which further adhere to the disease risk. Therefore, there is a need to create awareness on basic hygiene among this population for preventing such bacterial diseases.

Assessment of Water Handling Practices and Prevalence of Water Borne Diseases, in East Nile Locality, Khartoum State

Assessment of Water Handling Practices and Prevalence of Water Borne Diseases, in East Nile Locality, Khartoum State

Assessment of Water Handling Practices and Prevalence of Water Borne Diseases, East Nile Locality, Khartoum State

Water is one of the important requirements for human health and life. However, it is also the most effective carrier of pathogens causing a number of infectious diseases. Water borne diseases are the most common prevalent infectious diseases in developing countries especially in rural areas, and is still a major public health and environmental concern. The living conditions in rural areas are poor, which makes rural populations more vulnerable to inaccessibility to safe drinking water and high risk of water borne diseases .Water safety in a community depends on a range of factors, from the quality of source water to storage and handling in the domestic setting. This is a descriptive cross sectional community based study conducted in East Nile locality in the capital state of Khartoum in Sudan among 384 households from April to June 2019, to assess water handling practices on a household level and the factors associated with the prevalence of water borne diseases. A questionnaire was used to collect data and the data was analysed by using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). The result revealed that artesian wells were the commonest source of drinking water used by 81% of participants. The majority of the respondents (80.2%) didn’t treat their water at household level and only 3% used boiling. 2.9% of the respondents washed their hands before collecting water, 3.4% of the respondents cleaned their water container regularly and 91.7% covered their water collection container. The prevalence of water borne diseases was 79% and diarrhoeal disease were the most prevalent water borne diseases among households in all the selected villages accounting for 52.1% of the total followed by typhoid fever at 38%. The study concluded that the practice of hygienic water handling practices among participants was poor. Source of drinking water, socioeconomic status as well as the adoption of measures to treat water were the major factors responsible for the occurrence ....

Farming Practices and Disease Prevalence among Urban Lowland Farmers in Cameroon, Central Africa

Urban growth, coupled with increasing vegetable demand, has led to the utilization of lowlands in Cameroon for agricultural production. This study investigates the factors influencing the farming practices and the prevalence of diseases in vegetable producers through a cross-sectional survey of 130 farmers. Using logistic regression models, we found a positive association between education level and farm size with the overall quantity of fertilizer, both organic and mineral, used. Pesticide usage was positively associated with the number of years a farm had been cultivated, but it was negatively associated with land ownership. However, the number of years that farms had been cultivated was negatively associated with mineral fertilizer applications. In general, the prevalence of waterborne diseases was linked to the education level, while malaria prevalence was linked to the gender of the farmers. The location of cultivated areas significantly influenced the likelihood of reporting malaria and headaches. Despite the associated health risks, vegetable production is necessary for farmers’ livelihoods in the lowlands of Yaoundé. Therefore, policymakers should provide measures to optimize the benefits of urban agriculture, including training in safe farming techniques to minimize the associated health risks.

Welfare impacts of water security in Kenya: Evidence from the Upper Ewaso Ngiro North Catchment Area

Water insecurity is a major concern both in the global and local contexts. The study estimated the sub-catchment water poverty index and the household water security index, on cross-sectional farm household data collected from 652 households randomly selected from eight sub-catchments of the Upper Ewaso Ng’iro North Catchment Area (ENNCA). The impact of water security on household income per adult equivalent and prevalence of waterborne diseases was assessed using ordinary least squares regression and Poisson regression models respectively. Water Poverty Index (WPI) results revealed that Sirimon and Ewaso Narok sub-catchments are faced with acute water stress, while the rest of the sub-catchments are faced with moderate water stress despite being in the sub-catchment area. The results showed that improved water security can offer welfare benefits to households through increments in household income and reduced water-borne disease prevalence. From the findings, therefore, improved water security can offer both economic and health solutions to some of the country's problems including poverty alleviation and reduce the government's budget spending on communicable and non-communicable water-related diseases.

Quality and Safety Assessment of Water Samples Collected from Wells in Four Emirate Zones of Kebbi State, Nigeria

The increasing prevalence of water-borne diseases necessitates periodic monitoring of domestic and drinking water sources. The current study assessed the safety of well water in the four emirate zones (Gwandu, Yauri, Argungu, and Zuru) of Kebbi State, Nigeria. Using normal procedures, samples of well water were examined for heavy metals, physicochemical characteristics, and microorganisms, and the results were compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water criteria. The heavy metals’ chronic daily ingestion (CDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) were also determined. The results showed that well water in the four emirate zones had normal temperature, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DO), total suspended solids (TSS), and zinc (Zn). However, non-permissible concentrations of lead (Pb), iron (Fe), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and pH (Gwandu and Argungu only) were detected in all the water samples. Except for Cd and Cr in children, the CDI and HQ of the heavy metals were normal. The microbiological examinations revealed that the water samples from the four zones had abnormal levels of Bacillus species (bacteria), Escherichia coli (bacteria), Staphylococcus aureus (bacteria), Aspergillus niger (fungi), Mucor racemosa (fungi), and Paecilomyces variotti (fungi). The results obtained suggest that well water in the four zones is not suitable for human consumption unless treated.

Health risk attributed to poor microbial quality of drinking water from rural area of Peshawar, Pakistan

Waterborne diseases caused by potentially fatal microorganism is a major public health concern and impart severe health consequences in form of morbidity while severe cases lead to mortality. The current study aims to determine the microbiological quality of drinking water from the rural area of Peshawar Pakistan. A total of 600 samples were collected from budhni, chamkani and muslim town in 2018. This cross-sectional was approved by the National Institute of health and management sciences Peshawar. A sterile water container was used for a sample collection from both tap water and hand pump by adapting standard microbiological practices. Out of 600 samples, 275 (45.7%) samples were positive for potential microorganisms including Salmonella (15%), Shagella (32.8%), and E. coli (11.7%) respectively. A significant number of growth of Shigella, Salmonella and E. coli from a source of hand pump were observed in comparison to tap water. The presence of potential fatal microorganisms indicates poor quality of drinking water in the study setting which impart severe health consequences. Public health measures are required for reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases in such areas. Keywords: Contamination; Drinking water; Public health; Water borne diseases http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2021.100141

A Novel Thermoplasmonic Paint with Titanium Nitride Nanoparticles

Several studies have reported the photothermal heating of colloidal nanoparticles due to plasmon-enhanced light absorption, and Titanium Nitride has emerged as a promising nanomaterial for the practical application of this phenomenon. Here, we developed a novel paint that is infused with Titanium Nitride nanoparticles. Varying concentrations of this paint were applied to copper plates and tested under natural light. Substantial heating was observed under both high-grade and low-grade light for higher concentrations. The uses of this source of heat extend to long-term solutions for reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases in remote, rural settings via pasteurization.

Climate Change Impacts on Rice Cultivation: A Comparative Study of the Tonle Sap and Mekong River

Climate change is unequivocal. Farmers are increasingly vulnerable to floods and drought. In this article, the negative impact of climate hazards on rice cultivation in the Tonle Sap and Mekong River influenced by climatic variability between 1994 and 2018 are analyzed. A cohort of 536 households from four Cambodian districts participated in household surveys designed to consider how various vulnerability factors interacted across this time series. It was found that: (i) The major climate hazards affecting rice production between 1994 and 2018 were frequent and extreme flood and drought events caused by rainfall variability; (ii) In 2018, extreme flood and drought occurred in the same rice cultivation cycle. The impact caused by each hazard across each region were similar; (iii) An empirical model was used to demonstrate that drought events tend to limit access to irrigation, impact rice production, and result in an increased prevalence of water-borne diseases. Flood events cause reduced rice production, damage to housing, and impede children from accessing education. The impact of drought events on rice production was found to be more severe than flood events; however, each climatic hazard caused physical, economic, social, and environmental vulnerabilities. It is recommended that sufficient human and financial resources are distributed to local authorities to implement adaptation measures that prepare rice farmers for flood and drought events and promote equitable access to water resources.

Trends of potential waterborne diseases at different health facilities in Bamboutos Division, West Region, Cameroon: a retrospective appraisal of routine data from 2013 to 2017.

Many Cameroonian cities lack access to potable drinking water where populations rely on alternative water sources of doubtful quality. This study aimed at describing the trends and patterns of waterborne diseases (WBDs) reported in some health facilities in Bamboutos Division between 2013 and 2017 as baseline data towards understanding the profile of WBDs in this area. A retrospective review of clinical data kept on patients who visited the main health facilities in Bamboutos Division from January 2013 to December 2017 was conducted. Overall, 39.1% (n = 8,124) of total patients were positive for at least one WBD. Categories of WBDs were dysenteries (18.6%), gastroenteritis (4.2%), viral hepatitis (0.2%) and typhoid was the most preponderant (24.4%). The most affected age groups were those above 24 years but significant differences were observed only in 2013 and 2017. Distribution of potential WBDs was locality dependent. The highest prevalence of typhoid fever was recorded in Bameboro (35.4%), dysenteries in Bamedjinda (20.4%) and gastroenteritis (17.3%) in Bamekoumbou. The study shows very high overall prevalence of WBDs in some localities which could be considered as 'hotspots' of WBDs in Bamboutos. This suggests the urgent need for setting up measures to tackle the challenges of potable drinking water supply.

Prevalence of water-borne diseases in western India: dependency on the quality of potable water and personal hygiene practices

Abstract Unlike urban and semi-urban settlements where the potable water is supplied through a water treatment plant and a distribution network, in rural low-income settings, the provision of the water treatment plant for all villages is not feasible for a developing country like India. The most affordable and reliable way to provide clean drinking water is treatment at the consumer end. This research is aimed to assess occurrence of water-borne diseases based on personal hygiene and quality of drinking water source. Of the households, 4,237 in 15 selected villages were surveyed for personal hygiene using a questionnaire. Water samples were collected from all major water sources in the villages and analyzed for chemical and bacteriological properties. For water and personal hygiene, quality indices were calculated, and a mathematical model was developed using multiple linear regression analysis. The regression concluded that personal hygiene has a more significant effect on the occurrence of water-borne diseases than the quality of water source in the study area. Personal hygiene is one of the health factors neglected by the people specifically in rural India. Therefore, India needs to run campaigns like Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (Clean India Mission), which mainly aimed to reduce open defecation, to promote personal hygiene and to reduce the prevalence of water-borne diseases.

Geospatial analysis of health risks and solid waste management behaviour

ABSTRACT The lack of proper waste management behaviour creates environmental debasement and induces health risks. This study employs primary survey data collected in 2016 to investigate the association between health risks and improper waste management behaviour by households in three locations of Rupandehi District, Nepal. The health risk is measured by a series of water-related symptoms such as Diarrhea, Jaundice, Typhoid Fever, Worms, and Cholera. This paper’s novel contribution is that we identify the spatial nature of the prevalence of waterborne diseases and related factors such as solid waste management behaviour, hygiene infrastructure and personal cleanliness, and socio-economic status of the households. We use a spatial autoregressive model under the negative binomial family, and the result indicates a significant spatial autocorrelation of waterborne diseases. Moreover, we find the significant effect of improper waste management practices on waterborne diseases. The result is consistent even after various robustness and falsification tests. The findings from this study indicate the acute need to raise awareness concerning the malicious effect of improper waste management and the urge to provide wider access to waste management services.