Prevalence Of Inadequate Iron Intake Research Articles

Assessment of the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes in premenopausal females based on the reference values of the European Food Safety Authority using cross-sectional food consumption data

BackgroundThe iron intake requirement distribution for premenopausal females is not symmetric, which invalidates the EAR cut-point approach for assessing the prevalence of iron inadequacy. Therefore, Beaton’s Full Probability Approach (PA) must be used. Although the PA requires information on the entire iron intake requirement distribution, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) only provided the EAR (50th percentile), 90th, 95th (population reference intake), and 97.5th percentiles. ObjectivesThis study aimed to reliably estimate the prevalence of iron inadequacy in premenopausal females using the PA, based on the intake requirements established by EFSA, and compare the results with those obtained from the EAR cut-point method. MethodsHabitual iron intakes were calculated using the statistical program to assess dietary exposure with data from 484 females (20–45 y) from the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2012–2016. Iron requirements of EFSA (including additionally obtained information) were applied. Results from the PA were compared to results obtained with the EAR cut-point method. Sensitivity analyses examined the impact of lower iron intake distributions on differences in estimated inadequate intakes between PA and EAR cut-point methods. ResultsA 2-fold higher prevalence of iron inadequacy among Dutch premenopausal females was observed when employing the PA compared to the EAR cut-point method, using EFSA’s reference values. Sensitivity analysis showed that the EAR cut-point method could also result in large overestimations for populations with lower intake distributions. ConclusionsThis study provided an example of using the PA method by using additionally derived information on the full requirement distribution underlying EFSA’s reference values. Results showed once more the unsuitability of the EAR cut-point method to calculate the prevalence of iron inadequacy in premenopausal females. Hence, we recommend that institutions deriving dietary reference values provide all the information needed to use the correct method to determine inadequate intakes in the population.

Inadequate intake of energy and nutrients: A comparative cross-sectional study between sport and nonsport science university students of southern Ethiopia.

This study aimed to investigate and compare the energy and selected nutrient intakes of sport science and nonsport science university students of Southern Ethiopia. Multiple-day dietary data were collected from 166 university students (76 sport science and 90 nonsport sciences). Average daily energy and nutrient intake, and inadequate intakes were calculated using NutriSurvey (NS). There were significant differences (p < .05) in the median intakes of energy, total carbohydrate, and vitamin B1 between female students from the sport science and nonsport science groups, but only the median intake of iron was significantly different (p < .05) between the male sport and nonsport science student groups. The prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin B1 was significantly (p < .05) higher in the male and female from the nonsport science groups compared to the male and female student groups in the sport science, respectively, whereas the prevalence of inadequate iron intake by the male sport science students' group was significantly (p < .05) higher compared to their counterparts. Similarly, the prevalence of inadequate energy among the females from the sport science group was significantly (p < .05) higher compared to the female students from the nonsport science department group. The prevalence of inadequate intake of dietary energy and the majority of the nutrients (protein, fat, vitamin A, B1, B2, and magnesium) were high (>50%) in selected university students. The energy and majority of nutrient intakes by the students in the selected universities of southern Ethiopia were suboptimal. Therefore, activities that will improve the dietary intake of university students should include weekly meal plan revision considering their average recommended nutrient intake (RNI).

Micronutrient intake inadequacies in different types of milk consumers in Indonesian children 1-5 years: dietary modeling with young child milk improved nutrient intakes.

Indonesian children under-five have a high prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies. Improving young child feeding practices may be the solution. Increasing the consumption of appropriate milk products could help to reduce nutrient inadequacy. The objective of this study was to assess nutrient inadequacy in Indonesian children to evaluate the potential improvement using dietary modeling analysis. Data from children aged 1-5 years from the Indonesian Individual Dietary Consumption Survey in 2014 were used in this analysis (n = 11,020). Diet modeling was conducted in two scenarios, substitution volume to volume and calories to calories. The proportion of children consuming young child milk (YCM) was the highest compared to other milk types across all age groups, followed by condensed milk and cow's milk. YCM, also called "Growing-Up Milk" (GUM), are marketed as a product specifically formulated for the nutritional needs of young children. YCM consumers had lower prevalence of inadequate intakes in iron, zinc, vitamins A, C and D across age groups when compared to condensed milk consumers. The prevalence of inadequate intakes of nutrients in condensed milk consumers was Vitamin A (67, 64%), folate (92, 91%), Vitamin D (87, 84%), iron (84, 76%), and zinc (76, 76%) in 1-2y and 3-4y, respectively. The substitution of condensed milk with a YCM reduced the prevalence of inadequate intakes of micronutrients, such as Vitamin A, vitamin D, folate, iron and zinc, which are important for immune function. YCM reduced the prevalence of inadequate intakes of micronutrients by 20-40% (Vit A and folate) and 40-50% (Vit D and zinc). The reduction of prevalence of inadequate iron intake was 31% in 1-2y and 63% in 3-4y. The prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes was high among children aged 1-5 years old in Indonesia. YCM consumers had better nutrient intake. The substitution of condensed milk with a YCM reduced the prevalence of inadequate of micronutrient intake. Thus, nutrient intakes could be improved by YCM consumption in 1-5 years old children in Indonesia, along with nutrition education on feeding practices.

Iron Nutrition of Pre-Schoolers in High-Income Countries: A Review.

Pre-schoolers are vulnerable to iron deficiency, which, in high-resource countries, is mainly caused by suboptimal or poorly absorbable iron intakes. This review examines the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes and status, and the non-dietary factors associated with these, among children aged between 2 and 5 years within high-income countries. It then considers the quality of the pre-schooler diet in terms of dietary factors, dietary patterns, and iron intakes. Additionally, it discusses the assessment of iron bioavailability and examines the various methods used to estimate the amount of absorbable iron in pre-schooler diets. Knowledge of the adequacy of iron intakes and bioavailability of iron intakes, and dietary patterns associated with iron intakes can facilitate the design and implementation of effectively targeted community-based intervention studies to improve iron intakes and iron bioavailability to minimise the risk of iron deficiency.

Food Consumption of People with Sickle Cell Anemia in a Middle-Income Country

Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is a genetic and hemolytic disease globally characterized by social vulnerability. Food consumption has been insufficiently analyzed in SCA. Secondary iron overload is often observed. This leads to unreliable recommendations for dietary iron restriction. We assessed food consumption and iron intake among adults with SCA. Considering the guidelines for healthy eating, foods were grouped according to the NOVA classification. This transversal study included 74.4% of eligible patients who were registered in the reference center for SCA treatment in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2019. Data on food consumption were collected through 24 h recall. The monthly household income of 82.3% of patients was less than $770. The consumption of fresh or minimally processed foods was directly associated with monthly household income (p < 0.0001; η2 = 0.87). Ultra-processed foods provided more than one-third of the total energy intake (35.2%). The prevalence of inadequate iron intake was about 40% among women, while that of iron intake above the tolerable upper limit was 0.8%. People from lower socioeconomic classes had the lowest iron intake. Strategies to encourage the consumption of fresh or minimally processed foods are needed considering the requirement of an antioxidant diet in SCA. These findings highlight the need for health equity to ensure food security and healthy eating in SCA.

The Cost-Effectiveness of Existing and Hypothetical Iron Fortification Programs in Haiti

Abstract Objectives Our objectives were to estimate apparent intake of iron in Haiti, to assess the adequacy of iron intake among women of reproductive age (WRA), and to model the cost-effectiveness of fortifying alternative food vehicles for reducing inadequate intake. Methods We analyzed the most recent Haiti household food consumption data (2012 ECVMAS) to estimate adequacy of apparent iron intake from dietary sources (using the adult male equivalent method; assuming 10% absorption) and modeled the impacts of fortifying currently mandated (wheat flour, applying local data on current compliance) and hypothetical (bouillon and rice) food vehicles on reductions in the prevalence of inadequate iron intake (effective coverage). We built activity-based cost models to estimate large scale food fortification (LSFF) program establishment and management costs, based on key informant interviews and on published cost estimates from other settings adapted to fit the Haitian case. Results The prevalence of inadequate dietary intake of iron among WRA was 79% (100% among pregnant women). Iron-fortified wheat flour was the most cost-effective vehicle: $4.32 and $4.75 per WRA-year effectively covered at current (75% of flour fortified to the standard of 30 mg/kg) and target (90% fortified to the standard) fortification levels. Fortified wheat flour effectively covered 11–13% of non-pregnant WRA, but almost no pregnant women. Although bouillon was consumed by &amp;gt; 98% of households, low estimated iron absorption from fortified bouillon (2%) led to low effective coverage. Iron-fortified rice (90% fortified at 120 mg/kg) was predicted to effectively cover the largest number of WRA (reducing inadequate intake to ∼30%), but at a cost of $7.80 per WRA-year effectively covered. Conclusions Of the food vehicles modeled, wheat flour was the most cost-effective for reducing inadequate iron intake. Modeling iron fortification of individual and combinations of food vehicles showed that well-designed LSFF programs can contribute to improving iron status among non-pregnant women, but eliminating inadequate iron intake among all WRA will require complementary iron interventions. Funding Sources This work was supported by grants to UC Davis from the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) and to Partners of the Americas from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

Micronutrient intake and prevalence of micronutrient inadequacy among women (15-49 y) and children (6-59 mo) in South Kivu and Kongo Central, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

Iron biofortified beans and carotenoid enriched cassava are proposed as a solution to combat iron and vitamin A deficiencies, respectively, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). To inform the need for biofortified foods, we conducted a survey in 2014 in two provinces of the DRC, South Kivu and Kongo Central. Unexpectedly, women of reproductive age (WRA; 15-49 y) and their children (6-59 m) had a low prevalence of biochemical iron and vitamin A deficiency, based on ferritin and retinol binding protein, respectively. To better understand the lack of biochemical deficiency of these nutrients, we examined the prevalence of inadequate intake for these and other select nutrients. Dietary intake was assessed using 24-hour recalls among 744 mother-child dyads. Repeat recalls on a non-consecutive day were conducted with a subsample of the study population to account for intra-individual variation and estimate usual intake. In WRA, the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes were 33% and 29% in South Kivu and Kongo Central, respecitvely. The prevalence of inadequate vitamin A intakes among WRA was low in South Kivu (18%) and negligible in Kongo Central (1%). Iron inadequacy was highest in infants (6-11 m) at 82% and 64% in South Kivu and Kongo Central, respectively. Among older children (12-59 m) in both provinces, the prevalence of iron inadequacy was similar at ~20%. There was a high prevalence of inadequate zinc intake in women and children (i.e. 79-86% among WRA and 56-91% among children 6-59 m) consistent with our findings of a high prevalence of low serum zinc in the same sample. Dietary data here corroborate the low prevalence of biochemical vitamin A deficiency but not iron. However, any change to the supply of red palm oil (primary source of vitamin A) would dramatically reduce population vitamin A intakes, thus a carotenoid enriched cassava program may be beneficial as a safety net measure. Crops biofortified with zinc also appear warranted. We caution that our findings cannot be extrapolated to the entire Congo where diverse agro-ecological landscape exist or when political and environmental shocks occur which challenge food production.

Adequacy of iron intakes and socio-demographic factors associated with iron intakes of Australian pre-schoolers.

To estimate the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes and identify socio-demographic factors associated with iron intakes of Australian children aged 2-5years. Data from the 2011-2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey component of the Australian Health Survey were analysed (n = 783, 2-5years old). Dietary intake was assessed via two non-consecutive 24-h recalls. Prevalence of inadequate iron intake was estimated using the full probability approach after estimating the distribution of usual intakes with PC-SIDE. Associations between potential socio-demographic factors and energy-adjusted iron intakes were assessed via linear regression accounting for the complex survey design. Mean (SD) iron intakes for pre-schoolers were 7.9 (1.9) mg/day and the prevalence of inadequate iron intake was 10.1% (95% CI 7.9%, 12.1%). Male sex (mean difference between boys and girls: - 0.22 (95% CI - 0.03, - 0.41)mg/day; p = 0.022) and age (each additional year was associated with 0.11 (95% CI - 0.22, - 0.00)mg/day lower iron intake; p = 0.048) were negatively associated with pre-schooler iron intakes. This study provides current data relating to the iron nutrition of Australian pre-schoolers. Poor iron intakes continue to be a problem for 10% of Australian children beyond the second year of life, with iron intakes being lower for boys compared to girls and declining with age. Future research should examine strategies to improve iron intakes of young children, with a focus on promoting iron-rich food sources.

The Level of Nutrition Knowledge and Dietary Iron Intake of Bosnian Women

The iron deficiency anemia is particularly common in reproductive age women. Thus, it is important to explore facts of knowledge about importance of iron in nutrition in female population. The study included 176 respondents and collection of data was done using a questionnaire and statistically analyzed. Women from rural area, women in younger age groups and pregnant women showed a higher level of knowledge about importance of iron in nutrition. The most respondents were in the normal weight range, but the significant prevalence of inadequate iron intakes was determined (daily average intake for iron was 7.62mg/day) and there was significant difference between groups. Also, respondents had no knowledge concerning factors affecting iron supply from their diet, while it seems justified to focus our attention on these problems within the framework of educational activities.

Prevalência e fatores associados à anemia ferropriva e hipovitaminose A em crianças menores de um ano

Resumo Objetivo Avaliar a prevalência e os fatores associados à anemia ferropriva e hipovitaminose A em menores de um ano. Métodos Estudo transversal com amostra de 93 crianças. Foram consideradas anêmicas crianças com hemoglobina &lt; 11 g/dL. O ponto de corte utilizado para a classificação de valores baixos de vitamina A foi &lt; 0,70 mMol/L, e para caracterizar deficiência &lt; 0,35 mMol/L. As análises estatísticas foram processadas no software Stata 10.0. As variáveis estão apresentadas em frequência simples, a associação entre os fatores analisados e as deficiências de ferro e vitamina A foi realizada por meio do teste do qui-quadrado de Pearson. Para a comparação de médias de hemoglobina e vitamina A, utilizaram-se os testes t de Student para variáveis paramétricas e o de Mann-Whitney para as não paramétricas. Resultados A prevalência, de anemia e de hipovitaminose A, foi de 29,03% e de 19,10%, respectivamente. Encontraram-se ainda, valores baixos de vitamina A em 90,32% das crianças. Baixa idade e baixa escolaridade materna associaram-se com a presença de anemia ferropriva. Valores baixos de vitamina A foram significativos em mães não brancas. As prevalências de inadequação do consumo de ferro e vitamina A foram de 23,66% e 22,58%, respectivamente. Conclusão Evidencia-se elevada prevalência dessas enfermidades, ressaltando-se a importância da adoção de medidas preventivas.

Consumo de macronutrientes e ingestão inadequada de micronutrientes em adultos

To estimate energy and nutrient intake and prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intake among Brazilian adults. Data from the National Dietary Survey, from the 2008-2009 Household Budget Survey, were used. Food consumption was evaluated through food record on two non-consecutive days. A total of 21,003 individuals (52.5% women), between 20-59 years old, participated in the survey. Usual nutrient intake was estimated according to the National Cancer Institute method. The Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) cut-off points were used to determine the prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intake. For manganese and potassium, the Adequate Intake (AI) was used as cut-off. Sodium intake was compared with the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL). The probability approach was used to determine the prevalence of inadequate iron intake. The data were analyzed according to the location of the household (urban or rural) and macro regions of Brazil. The mean energy intake was 2,083 kcal among men and 1,698 kcal among women. Prevalence of inadequacy equal to or greater than 70% were observed for calcium among men and magnesium, vitamin A, and sodium among both men and women. Prevalence equal to or greater than 90% were found for calcium in women and vitamins D and E in both genders. Prevalence lower than 5% were found for iron in men and for niacin in men and women. In general, prevalence of inadequate intake was higher in the rural area and in the Northeast region. Energy intake was higher among individuals who live in urban areas and in the North region. The greatest risk groups of inadequate micronutrient intake were women and those living in rural areas and in the Northeast region.

Prevalence and determinants of iron depletion and anemia among Canadian Inuit

Accelerated loss of traditional lifestyles may place Inuit at risk of iron depletion, given that anemia has been frequently observed. Study objectives were to determine the prevalence of anemia, storage iron depletion and iron overload; and to identify correlates of iron status in Canadian Inuit adults. In a cross‐sectional survey of 2550 adults, hemoglobin, serum ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (on a subset), and C‐reactive protein (CRP) were measured on fasting venous blood. Anthropometry, dietary, sociodemographic and health data were collected. Correlates of iron status were assessed with multivariate linear and logistics models. Low prevalence of inadequate iron intake was observed (&lt;10 %). For men with CRP&lt;10 mg/L (n=804) 6.5 % had depleted and 10.3 % had elevated iron stores. For women with CRP&lt;10 mg/L (n=1260) 29.4 % had depleted iron stores. Anemia was present in 16.1 % of men and 21.7 % of women. Iron depletion explained 51 % of anemia cases in women but few cases in men (15 %). Odds ratios for iron depletion were 2.3 (1.2–4.6 95% CI) for food insecure men and 2.1 (1.0–4.1) for men without a household hunter. Among food insecure women, higher n3‐PUFA status was associated with reduced risk of iron depletion (OR=0.84; 0.72–0.98). Iron depletion is a concern for young Canadian Inuit women. Interventions should address food security and traditional food access. Funding: IPY, HC, CIHR, INA, GNHSS, ArcticNet.

The Potential of Increased Meat Intake to Improve Iron Nutrition in Rural Kenyan Schoolchildren

Schoolchildren in developing countries often have inadequate intakes of iron, due primarily to poor bioavailability. Increasing meat in the diet could improve both the amount of iron consumed and its availability. The effect of increases in intakes of meat and ascorbic acid on absorbed iron was investigated by theoretically modifying the habitual diet of rural Kenyan schoolchildren. The projected changes in the amount of absorbed iron and prevalence of inadequate iron intakes were calculated for 78 children (6-9 years of age). The prevalence of inadequate iron intakes decreased from 77% to 54% through the theoretical addition of 50 g beef or 100 mg ascorbic acid and to 23% through the addition of both to dinner each day. To reduce the prevalence of inadequate iron intake to 5%, the addition of 100 g meat plus 150 mg ascorbic acid would be necessary. The combined addition of meat and ascorbic acid to a meal has the potential to reduce the projected prevalence of inadequate iron intakes among these schoolchildren.

The Iron Status of Canadian Adolescents and Adults:Current Knowledge and Practical Implications

Iron is an essential nutrient, playing a central role in oxygen transport and cellular energy metabolism. The importance of ensuring adequate bioavailable dietary iron stems from the severe consequences associated with iron deficiency (ID) and anemia, including reduced immune function and resistance to infection, developmental delays and irreversible cognitive deficits in young children, impaired physical work performance, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Poor dietary iron intake and ID exist in Canada, particularly in women of reproductive age. Data from the provincial nutrition surveys suggest that the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes (and low intakes of absorbable iron) among women under 50 years of age is over 10%, which may reflect poor iron status. Teenage girls are at risk for low iron stores because of the adolescent growth spurt and the onset of menstruation; those who are vegetarian are at even greater risk. The Canadian diet has changed so that grain products are now the main source of dietary iron for all age groups. The public must be educated to ensure the consumption of adequate quantities of bioavailable iron and enhancing factors such as vitamin C. Industry, government, and health professionals must work together to promote healthy eating patterns and the selection of appropriate foods.

Iron nutritional status in female karatekas, handball and basketball players, and runners

The iron nutritional status was studied in 84 sportswomen (19 karatekas, 20 handball players, 20 basketball players, and 25 middle and long distance runners) and in 82 nonathletic females of similar characteristics (control group). After a 7-day nutritional survey by means of the food weighing method, it was found that iron intake was significantly higher in the handball players ( p < 0.05), basketball players ( p < 0.01), and runners ( p < 0.01) with regard to the control group; the basketball players were the only ones to cover the recommended minimum intake (15 mg/day). The heme iron intake was significantly greater in the handball and basketball players ( p < 0.01), who, together with the runners, reached the value of 1.5 mg/day, which is considered to be optimal. In relation to the control group, the karatekas and handball and basketball players had lower levels of serum ferritin, although their iron intake was greater, whereas the runners had higher values that were very similar to those of the control group, due to the iron supplementation they had received. Despite finding a marked prevalence of inadequate iron intake, both in the sportswomen and in the control group, the manifest cases of anemia are relatively scarce. The organic iron stores do not seem to depend exclusively on the iron intake but also on intimate mechanisms of intestinal absorption and diverse causes of iron loss.