Presence Of Flagellates Research Articles

Heterotrophic flagellates increase microalgal biomass yield

In time of scarcity of fossil energies, microalgae are attracting interest as a potential source of renewable energy due to their high growth rates and potential high lipid contents. Additionally, cultivation may be an abatement measure to remove surplus nutrients from eutrophicated ecosystems. At present, microalgal cultivations for biomass production are run mainly in monocultures, which are easily contaminated with competing microalgae or grazers. Furthermore, heterotrophic bacteria are highly abundant and may strongly reduce the yield in the target microalgae through competition for nutrients. In three laboratory experiments, we tested whether heterotrophic flagellates (Oxyrrhis marina and Cafeteria roenbergensis) can make nutrients bound in bacteria available for marine diatoms (Coscinodiscus granii and Odontella sinensis) and can shift the competition for inorganic nutrients towards the microalgae. Cultures were run with and without flagellates, under different conditions: without an external carbon source, in presence of organic matter (barley grains) or biogas wastewater. The presence of flagellates had a positive effect on microalgal growth, but this was context and species specific. The presence of the flagellates affected the maximum algal growth rates (r) especially in Coscinodiscus granii. A maximal biomass increase (29.93 ± 2.98 %) (mean ± standard deviation, n = 3) was observed for Coscinodiscus granii in F/2 + Si medium. Furthermore, although the flagellates were attributed to the detrital fraction, their presence resulted in a significant reduction of detritus. In conclusion, heterotrophic flagellates have the potential to increase nutrient use efficiency especially in algae bioreactors with slow-growing large phytoplankton taxa. This effect may be particularly relevant in organic polluted water.

Viral and Flagellate Control of Prokaryotic Production and Community Structure in Offshore Mediterranean Waters

A dilution and size fractionation approach was used to study the separate and combined effects of viruses and flagellates on prokaryotic production ([(3)H]leucine incorporation) and community composition (16S rRNA gene PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis [DGGE]) in the upper mixed layer and the deep chlorophyll maximum in the offshore Mediterranean Sea. Four experiments were established using differential filtration: a resource control without predators (C treatment), treatment in the presence of viruses (V treatment), treatment in the presence of flagellates (F treatment), and treatment in the presence of both predators (VF treatment). The V and VF treatments increased prokaryotic abundance (1.4- to 2.3-fold) and the number of DGGE bands (by up to 43%) and decreased prokaryotic production compared to the level for the C treatment (by 22 to 99%). For the F treatment, significant differences compared to the level for the C treatment were found as well, but trends were not consistent across experiments. The relative abundances of the high-nucleic-acid subgroups of prokaryotes with high scatter (HNAhs) in flow cytometer settings were lower in the V and VF treatments than in the C and F treatments. These differences were probably due to lysis of very active HNA prokaryotes in the V and VF treatments. Our results indicate that the presence of viruses or viruses plus flagellates sustains prokaryotic diversity and controls prokaryotic production by regulating the proportion of the highly active members of the community. Our data also suggest that lysis and grazing control influences the relationship between bacterial community composition and prokaryotic production.

Feedback between zebra mussel selective feeding and algal composition affects mussel condition: did the regime changer pay a price for its success?

Summary1. We investigated the role of algal composition on pumping, clearance, assimilation, pseudofaeces and faeces production, feeding time budgets, and condition of zebra mussels from spring to autumn at two sites in Saginaw Bay (Lake Huron) and one site in western Lake Erie. Size‐fractioned chlorophyll was used to distinguish between feeding on small (<53 μm) and large (>53 μm) size fractions, and mussel feeding behaviour was quantified by video observations.2. Mussel pumping, clearance and assimilation rates varied among sites, particularly during summer, when phytoplankton composition varied considerably among sites. Lowest values were seen at the inner‐bay site of Saginaw Bay, low to moderate values at the outer‐bay site of Saginaw Bay, and high values at the Lake Erie site. Clearance, pumping and assimilation rates were all highly positively correlated (R2 = 0.76) with per cent contribution of flagellates to total algal biomass and negatively correlated with per cent of Microcystis aeruginosa (R2 = 0.63). The negative effects on pumping rate (as determined by clearance rate on the <53 μm fraction) of Microcystis, which occurred in the >53 μm fraction, could be mitigated by the presence of flagellates in the <53 μm fraction.3. Visual observations of mussel feeding showed evidence for poor seston quality during summer negatively affecting feeding rates. High faeces production during times of low assimilation rate was suggestive of poor assimilation efficiency and/or viable gut passage of grazing resistant algae. Long periods of time not filtering by the mussels during some Microcystis blooms and lack of production of a filtering current during one experiment were suggestive of intoxication from microcystin or other secondary compounds.4. Clearance and feeding rates of the mussels in Saginaw Bay were high during spring and autumn and very low in summer, particularly at the inner‐bay site. Condition of the mussels (mass : length ratio) was highest in spring and lowest during summer. This seasonal variation probably reflected high food assimilation rate during autumn and spring and low assimilation rate and reproduction during summer. The condition of mussels throughout the year was higher at the outer‐bay than the inner‐bay site, reflecting better feeding conditions at the former. Mussel selective feeding may have been responsible for the poor quality of food at the inner bay site; therefore, we postulate that a regime shift in phytoplankton composition promoted by the mussels fed back into lowered condition of the mussels.

Bacterial Feeders, the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and the Flagellate Cercomonas longicauda, have different Effects on Outcome of Competition among the Pseudomonas Biocontrol Strains CHA0 and DSS73

How bacterial feeding fauna affects colonization and survival of bacteria in soil is not well understood, which constrains the applicability of bacterial inoculants in agriculture. This study aimed to unravel how food quality of bacteria and bacterial feeders with different feeding habits (the selective feeding flagellate Cercomonas longicauda versus the non-selective feeding nematode Caenorhabditis elegans) influence the abundance of two bacteria that compete for resources in simple model communities. Microcosms consisted of either one gfp-tagged bacterial strain (Pseudomonas fluorescens DSM50090 or one of two biocontrol strains P. fluorescens CHA0 or Pseudomonas sp. DSS73) or combinations of two bacterial strains. DSM50090 is a suitable food bacterium, DSS73 is of intermediate food quality, and CHA0 is inedible to the bacterial feeders. Bacterial and protozoan cell numbers were measured by flow cytometry. In the presence of flagellates, CHA0 increased its abundance as compared to the other biocontrol strain DSS73 or to DSM50090, which were both eaten by the flagellates. In contrast, the number of CHA0 declined as compared to DSS73 when the model community was subjected to nematode predation pressure. Hence, the results suggested that the outcome of competition among bacteria depended on their ability to cope with the prevailing bacterial predator.

Seasonality of Lutzomyia fairtigi (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae), a species endemic to Eastern Colombia

The bionomics of sand flies (Diptera: Phlebotominae) was studied monthly for two consecutive years in alluvial gallery forests in the department of Casanare, Northeastern Colombia. A total of 2,365 specimens and 10 species were captured using CDC light traps and Shannon traps, and from diurnal resting places, and human landing collections. Lutzomyia fairtigi Martins (55%), Lutzomyia micropyga (Mangabeira) (20.9%), and Lutzomyia antunesi (Coutinho) (13.5%) were the predominant species in the region. Lutzomyia flaviscutellata and Lutzomyia panamensis, potential vectors of Leishmania in Colombia and neighboring countries, were also collected, but in low numbers. Lu. fairtigi is an endemic species to Colombia, and minimal data are available on its biology and distribution. The present study provides additional information about Lu. fairtigi, such as the diurnal activity displayed by females on cloudy days, the greater density during the rainy season (April to October), marked anthropophilia, and the presence of flagellates in the midgut of one female.

Effects of a Microcystis aeruginosa bloom and bacterivory on bacterial abundance and activity in a eutrophic reservoir

We investigated the changes in bacterioplankton abundance, composition, and fractions of cells incorporating leucine associated with a Microcystis aeruginosa bloom and enhanced protozoan grazing in a eutrophic reservoir. Bacterial community composition and leucine incorporation were studied by means of fluorescence in situ hybridization and microautoradiography. To alter the levels of protozoan grazing and the interactions of bacteria with the M. aeruginosa bloom, a manipulation experiment using size-fractionation and dialysis bag techniques was conducted. Samples collected from the Microcystis-poor dam area and the Microcystis-rich middle part of the reservoir were incubated as <0.8 μm, <5 μm, and unfiltered treatments in dialysis bags at their collection sites and, in parallel, one of each of the treatments from one site was transferred to and incubated at the other site. The sample transfer from the dam to the middle part induced a decrease in abundances and doubling times of total bacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and of the R-BT065 cluster (a subgroup of Betaproteobacteria), whereas the transfer to the dam station revealed the opposite trends. In the presence of flagellates and the M. aeruginosa bloom, both abundance and fractions of cells incorporating leucine of Betaproteobacteria and of the R-BT065 cluster transferred to the middle station decreased dramatically, while members of the Sphingobacteria-Flavobacteria lineage became the dominant part of the community. While Gammaproteobacteria accounted for a minor proportion of the total community, their relative proportions and activity increased at the middle station, likely being stimulated by the increased resource availability.

Top‐down and bottom‐up induced shifts in bacterial abundance, production and community composition in an experimentally divided humic lake

We examined in situ abundance and activities of the major bacterial groups in the two most distinct compartments of experimentally divided Lake Grosse Fuchskuhle (Germany). The selected south-west (SW) and north-east basin (NE) differ substantially in their major chemical and biological parameters that potentially influence the dynamics and composition of microbial communities. Water from the basins were incubated in dialysis bags, which allowed for a relatively free exchange of nutrients, limiting solutes and low molecular organic matter but fully prevented exchange of organisms. To investigate the effect of top-down and bottom-up manipulations three size fractions of water samples were produced: (i) unfiltered, (ii) pre-filtered through 5.0 microm pore size membranes to remove large particles, as well as grazers and (iii) pre-filtered through 0.8 microm filters to remove all potential bacterivores. One set of dialysis bags was either incubated in acidic SW (rich in humic matter) or in almost neutral NE basin whereas a second set was transferred from the SW to the NE basin and vice versa. Our study revealed pronounced differences in growth rates among the major bacterial groups in relation to the treatments. Members of the Betaproteobacteria, in particular of the subgroup targeted by the BETA2-870 probe, were highly abundant in both basins, and most of them belonged to the Polynucleobacter necessesarius subcluster PnecC. Their specific growth rates surprisingly increased in all treatments when being transplanted into the acidic SW basin, indicating that pH and humic substances greatly affected growth of this particular group in the lake. In contrast, members of the Sphingobacteria/Flavobacteria group of the Bacteroidetes (both basins) as well as Actinobacteria (SW basin) were less abundant, especially in the presence of flagellates (< 5.0 microm treatments). However, because of their extremely low initial numbers, grazing of heterotrophic nanoflagellates mostly controlled only a small part of the bacterial production (< or = 12%).

Synergistic and antagonistic effects of viral lysis and protistan grazing on bacterial biomass, production and diversity

In a mesotrophic reservoir, we examined the effects on the bacterioplankton of distinct consumers of bacteria, viruses and heterotrophic nanoflagellates, both alone and combined in an experiment using natural populations and in situ incubations in dialysis bags. Ribosomal RNA-targeted probes were employed as well as 16S RNA gene based PCR denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) to enumerate bacterial groups and assess bacterial community composition. We employed probes for Actinobacteria (HGC69a probe), Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroidetes bacteria (CF319a probe), BET42a probe (Betaproteobacteria) and a subgroup-Betaproteobacteria (R-BT065 probe). We found consumer-specific effects on bacterial activity and diversity (against a background of CF and BET dominating all treatments) suggesting distinct vulnerabilities to the two sources of mortality. For example, growth rate of Actinobacteria was only positive in the presence of flagellates, while towards the end of the experiment (T(72-96 h)) growth rate of R-BT was only positive in the viruses only treatment. More specific data on how viruses and flagellates influenced Flectobacillus are shown in the companion paper. Highest richness (number of DGGE bands) was found in the virus only treatment and lowest when both consumers were present. In addition, we found suggestions of both antagonistic and synergistic interactions between the two sources of bacterial mortality. Notably, bactivory by flagellates was associated with reductions in bacterial diversity and increases in viral production.

The importance of bacterivorous protists in the decomposition of stream leaf litter

Summary1. Allochthonous organic matter, in the form of senesced leaves, is a major source of carbon supporting detrital food webs. While studies have documented the role of bacteria and fungi in the decomposition of leaf litter, little information is available regarding the role of protists in the decomposition process.2. We tested the hypothesis that the presence of stream‐dwelling bacterivorous protists leads to an increased rate of leaf decomposition through grazing pressure on bacteria. We isolated live protists from decomposing leaves collected in a stream in Northern Virginia, U.S.A. (Goose Creek) and established laboratory cultures of common bacterivorous protists.3. Recently senesced leaves from the field were used in laboratory microcosm experiments to determine if the rate of litter decomposition differed between four treatments: bacteria only, bacteria + flagellates, bacteria + flagellates + ciliates, autoclaved stream water (control). We determined the dry weight of leaf remaining, bacterial abundance, flagellate abundance and ciliate abundance for each replicate on days 0, 7, 14, 30, 60 and 120.4. The rate of leaf decomposition was significantly higher in treatments with protists than without and bacterial abundance declined in protist treatments compared with bacteria only treatment. Weight loss in the presence of flagellates was three to four times higher when protists were present compared with treatments with bacteria alone. These results provide experimental evidence that protists could play a significant role in the detrital processes of streams.

The Soil Flagellate Heteromita globosa Accelerates Bacterial Degradation of Alkylbenzenes through Grazing and Acetate Excretion in Batch Culture

The impact of grazing by soil flagellates Heteromita globosa on aerobic biodegradation of benzene by Pseudomonas strain PS+ was examined in batch culture. Growth of H. globosa on these bacteria obeyed Monod kinetics (mu(max), 0.17 +/- 0.03 h(-1); K(s), 1.1 +/- 0.2 x 10(7) bacteria mL(-1)) and was optimal at a bacteria/ flagellate ratio of 2000. Carbon mass balance showed that 5.2% of total [ring-U-(14)C]benzene fed to bacteria was subsequently incorporated into flagellate biomass. Growth-inhibiting concentrations (IC50) of alkylbenzenes (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene) were inversely related with their octanol/ water partitioning coefficients, and benzene was least toxic for bacteria and flagellates with IC50 values of 4392 (+/- 167) microM and 2770 (+/- 653) microM, respectively. The first-order rate constant for benzene degradation (k1, 0.48 +/- 0.12 day(-1)) was unaffected by the presence or absence of flagellates in cultures. However, the rate of benzene degradation by individual bacteria averaged three times higher in the presence of flagellates (0.73 +/- 0.13 fmol cell(-1) h(-1)) than in their absence (0.26 +/- 0.03 fmol cell(-1) h(-1)). Benzene degradation also coincided with higher levels of dissolved oxygen and a higher rate of nitrate reduction in the presence of flagellates (p < 0.02). Grazing by flagellates may have increased the availability of dissolved oxygen to a smaller surviving population of bacteria engaged in the aerobic reactions initiating benzene degradation. In addition, flagellates may also have increased the rate of nitrate reduction through the excretion of acetate as an additional electron donor for these bacteria. Indeed, acetate was shown to progressively accumulate in cultures where flagellates grazed on heat-killed bacteria. This study provided evidence that grazing flagellates stimulate bacterial degradation of alkylbenzenes and provide a link for carbon cycling to consumers at higher trophic levels. This may have important implications for bioremediation processes.

Trypanosoma cruziin the OpossumDidelphis marsupialis:A Study of the Correlations and Kinetics of the Systemic and Scent Gland Infections in Naturally and Experimentally Infected Animals

The genusDidelphis(Marsupialia, Didelphidae) has the unique capacity of supporting both multiplication cycles ofTrypanosoma cruzisimultaneously; besides the intracellular forms, the epimastigotes can be found multiplying and differentiating abundantly in the lumen of the scent glands. The biological significance of the life cycle ofT. cruziwithin the scent glands ofDidelphis marsupialis,as well as its contribution to the epidemiology of the disease, is presently unclear. In order to clarify the mechanisms involved in the colonization of this singular habitat byT. cruzi,as well as to understand its biological role, we have carried out a serological and parasitological follow-up of both natural and experimental infections of young and adult opossums. Although all natural infections were stable and long lasting, no infected scent glands were found, indicating that the stability of the systemic infections does not depend on the presence of flagellates in the scent gland. In 84% of the experimentally infected animals the colonization of the scent glands was preceded by a period of patent parasitemia. Parasitism of the scent glands was essentially permanent and bilateral, and its maintenance was independent of circulating parasites. Moreover, the course of the infection differed depending on the source (scent glands versus axenic culture-derived) of the metacyclic forms. Our results suggest that parasitism of the SG ofD. marsupialisis most likely a secondary acquisition, a step toward independence from the insect vector, similarly to what is accepted forTrypanosoma equiperdum.

Cycling of marine dissolved organic matter. I. An experimental system

AME Aquatic Microbial Ecology Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsSpecials AME 11:65-77 (1996) - doi:10.3354/ame011065 Cycling of marine dissolved organic matter. I. An experimental system Zweifel UL, Blackburn N, Hagström Å The degradation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), together with bacterial growth and mortality, was studied in a multi-stage flow-through system. Particle-free sterile seawater was used as growth substrate and fed into vessels containing bacteria and viruses with or without flagellates. The residence time spanned from 30 to 1800 h. The rate of net organic carbon consumption decreased 3 orders of magnitude with increasing residence time (from 0.45 to 0.001 μM C h-1). Interestingly, we found a significantly higher DOC consumption in the presence of flagellates (1.3 to 10 times higher). Viruses were abundant in all culture vessels (1.7 to 6.5 × 1010 l-1), indicating active virus production within the system. The number of nucleoid-containing bacteria decreased with increasing residence time from 68% of the total count at the shortest residence time to 30% at the longest residence time. Also, with bacteria only, the total number of bacteria decreased at the longest residence time. We argue that with a long residence time the internal cycling of organic matter increased and that the fraction of viable bacteria decreased substantially resulting in a large fraction of 'ghosts'. DOM · Degradation · Bacteria · Viability · Remineralization · Virus Full text in pdf format PreviousNextExport citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in AME Vol. 11, No. 1. Publication date: August 29, 1996 Print ISSN: 0948-3055; Online ISSN: 1616-1564 Copyright © 1996 Inter-Research.

Arsenic Speciation and Seasonal Changes in Nutrient Availability and Micro-plankton Abundance in Southampton Water, U.K.

The links between dissolved arsenic speciation, biological activity and the availabilities of the nitrogen and phosphorus plant nutrients have been investigated in a seasonal survey of Southampton Water (U.K.). Southampton Water (Hampshire, southern England) is an approximately 10km long, and 2km wide north-westerly extension of the Solent, receiving water from the rivers Test and Itchen. It is a partially mixed estuary bordered by broad intertidal mudflats with shingle and sand on the eastern side, and a salt marsh to the west. Two sites were chosen: NW Netley Buoy is in a sheltered high-salinity estuarine environment whilst Calshot Buoy lies just outside Southampton Water and in a more exposed location of less-variable salinity. The first evidence of arsenic(III) production at both sites occurred in the second half of April, during the decay of a majorSkeletonema costatumdiatom bloom. Arsenic(III) levels rose asSkeletonemawas replaced by a numerically smaller but more chlorophyll-rich bloom of another diatom,Rhizosolenia delicatula. Rhizosoleniais therefore implicated as a possible source of arsenic(III). Methylated arsenic was absent whilst the water temperature was low and during the initialSkeletonemabloom, but a week later, during the growth phase of the succeeding bloom of the diatomR. delicatula, they became detectable. Methylated arsenic levels gradually increased through the spring to a broad maximum covering the mid-summer, whenMesodinium rubrum,Scrippsiella trochoideaand associated microflagellates also peaked. No subsequent single organism could be linked to the release of methylated arsenic into Southampton Water; organoarsenicals having been observed in the presence of flagellates, diatoms and ciliates. A large bacterial maximum was observed following blooms ofS. trochoideaandM. rubrumbut laboratory culture experiments of natural bacteria from Netley failed to produce significant changes in the concentration of any arsenic species. Phosphate depletion did not appear to be a prerequisite for arsenate assimilation. From the summer peak methylated arsenic levels then gradually diminished to undetectable levels in the winter months. Monomethylarsenic, present at concentrations approximately 50% those of dimethylarsenic, persisted longer through the summer. The arsenic species which can be measured using the hydride procedure may therefore represent intermediates in the decomposition of the bioarsenicals, such as arsenosugars, which are released, either actively as excretion/secretion products or passively as part of the decay process. Currently unidentified precursors of hydride-reducible arsenic species (‘hidden’ arsenic) may explain the poor link between planktonic activity and the levels of measurable arsenic species in the water column.

Competition for ammonium between nitrifying bacteria and plant roots in soil in pots; effects of grazing by flagellates and fertilization

The effects of grazing by the soil flagellate Adriamonas peritocrescens and of fertilization with ammonium on the competition for ammonium between the chemolithotrophic ammonium-oxidizing species Nitrosomonas europaea and roots of Plantago lanceolata were studied in pots with γ-sterilized soil in the presence of Nitrobacter winogradskyi. Nitrosomonas europaea was the weaker competitor for the available ammonium in this study. In the planted pots, the potential nitrifying activities and the mineral N concentrations were almost zero, whereas the numbers of nitrifying bacteria were reduced 200-fold in the presence of plants than without them. No significant effects of grazing and fertilization on the nitrification rate were found in the presence of plants, as the roots were more competitive for ammonium than Nitrosomonas europaea. The involvement of allelochemicals originating from plant roots is discussed and appeared to be unlikely. In the unplanted pots, larger amounts of nitrate and greater potential ammonium-oxidizing activities were found in the presence of flagellates and NH 4 + fertilizer than in their absence, although ammonium was present in all unplanted pots. A combination of flagellates and fertilization had an additive effect on the nitrification rate. Numbers of Nitrosomonas europaea and Nitrobacter winogradskyi were not significantly different under the four treatments without plants. However, those of the former species agreed well with the observed potential ammonium-oxidizing activities. The mechanism behind the stimulation of the nitrification process and the availability of ammonium in the pots to the plant roots and to the nitrifying bacteria are discussed. It is concluded that roots of Plantago lanceolata were more competitive for limiting amounts of ammonium than Nitrosomonas europaea cells. Grazing by flagellates and fertilization with ammonium favoured the nitrification process only in the absence of plant roots, whereas a combination of the two treatments had an additive effect.

Effects of Grazing by Flagellates on Competition for Ammonium between Nitrifying and Heterotrophic Bacteria in Soil Columns

The enhanced mineralization of immobilized nitrogen by bacteriophagous protozoa has been thought to favor the nitrification process in soils in which nitrifying bacteria must compete with heterotrophic bacteria for the available ammonium. To obtain more insight into this process, the influence of grazing by the flagellate Adriamonas peritocrescens on the competition for ammonium between the chemolithotrophic species Nitrosomonas europaea and the heterotrophic species Arthrobacter globiformis in the presence of Nitrobacter winogradskyi was studied in soil columns, which were continuously percolated with media containing 5 mM ammonium and different amounts of glucose at a dilution rate of 0.007 h (liquid volumes). A. globiformis won the competition for ammonium. The grazing activities of the flagellates had two prominent effects on the competition between N. europaea and A. globiformis. First, the distribution of ammonium over the profile of the soil columns was more uniform in the presence of flagellates than in their absence. In the absence of flagellates, relatively high amounts of ammonium accumulated in the upper layer (0 to 3 cm), whereas in the underlying layers the ammonium concentrations were low. In the presence of flagellates, however, considerable amounts of ammonium were found in the lower layers, whereas less ammonium accumulated in the upper layer. Second, the potential ammonium-oxidizing activity of N. europaea was stimulated in the presence of flagellates. The numbers of N. europaea at different glucose concentrations in the presence of flagellates were comparable to those in the absence of protozoa. However, in the presence of flagellates, the potential ammonium-oxidizing activities were four to five times greater than those in the absence of protozoa.

Effects of Grazing by Flagellates on Competition for Ammonium between Nitrifying and Heterotrophic Bacteria in Chemostats

The enhanced mineralization of organic nitrogen by bacteriophagous protozoa is thought to favor the nitrification process in soils, in which nitrifying bacteria have to compete with heterotrophic bacteria for the available ammonium. To obtain more insight into this process, the influence of grazing by the bacteriovorous flagellate Adriamonas peritocrescens on the competition for limiting amounts of ammonium between the ammonium-oxidizing species Nitrosomonas europaea and the heterotrophic species Arthrobacter globiformis was studied in the presence of Nitrobacter winogradskyi in continuous cultures at dilution rates of 0.004 and 0.01 h. The ammonium concentration in the reservoir was maintained at 2 mM, whereas the glucose concentration was increased stepwise from 0 to 7 mM. A. globiformis won the competition for limiting amounts of ammonium when the glucose concentration in the reservoirs increased, in agreement with previously described experiments in which the flagellates were not included. The numbers of nitrifying bacteria decreased as the numbers of heterotrophic bacteria rose with increasing glucose concentrations. Critical C/N ratios, i.e., ratios between glucose and ammonium in the reservoirs at which no nitrate was found in the culture vessels, of 12.5 and 10.5 were determined at dilution rates of 0.004 and 0.01 h, respectively. Below these critical values, coexistence of the competing species was found. The numbers of nitrifying bacteria decreased more in the presence of flagellates than in their absence, presumably by selective predation on the nitrifying bacteria, either in the liquid culture or on the glass wall of the culture vessels. Despite this, the rate of nitrate production did not decrease more in the presence of flagellates than in their absence. This demonstrates that no correlation has to be expected between numbers of nitrifying bacteria and their activity and that a constant nitrification rate per cell cannot be assumed for nitrifying bacteria. Above the critical C/N ratios, low numbers of nitrifying bacteria were still found in the culture vessels, probably because of attachment of the nitrifying bacteria to the glass wall of the culture vessels. Like the numbers of heterotrophic bacteria, the numbers of flagellates increased when the glucose concentrations in the reservoirs increased. Numbers of 2 x 10 and 12 x 10 flagellates ml were found at 7 mM glucose at dilution rates of 0.004 and 0.01 h, respectively. It was concluded that the critical C/N ratios were practically unaffected by the presence of protozoa. Although nitrate production rates were equal in the presence and absence of flagellates, the numbers of nitrifying bacteria decreased more strongly in their presence. This indicates a higher activity per nitrifying cell in the presence of flagellates.

Role of Microniches in Protecting Introduced Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii against Competition and Predation in Soil

The importance of microniches for the survival of introduced Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii cells was studied in sterilized and recolonized sterilized loamy sand and silt loam. The recolonized soils contained several species of soil microorganisms but were free of protozoa. Part of these soil samples was inoculated with the flagellate Bodo saltans, precultured on rhizobial cells. The introduced organisms were enumerated in different soil fractions by washing the soil, using a standardized washing procedure. With this method, free organisms and organisms associated with soil particles or aggregates >50 mum were separated. The total number of rhizobia was influenced slightly (silt loam) or not at all (loamy sand) by the recolonization with microorganisms or by the addition of flagellates alone. However, when both flagellates and microorganisms were present, numbers of rhizobia decreased drastically. This decrease was more than the sum of both effects separately. Nevertheless, populations of rhizobia were still higher than in natural soil. In the presence of flagellates, higher percentages of rhizobia and other microorganisms were associated with soil particles or aggregates >50 mum than in the absence of flagellates. In recolonized soils, however, the percentages of particle-associated rhizobia were lower than in soils not recolonized previous to inoculation. Thus, the presence of other microorganisms hindered rhizobial colonization of sites where they are normally associated with soil particles or aggregates.

Incapacity of the evolution of Trypanosoma cruzi in the hemocele of triatomids

O exame da hemolinfa de triatomíneos (Triatoma infestans e Dipetalogastermaxima) infectados pelo Trypanosoma cruzi há 10, 15, 20 e 30 dias não revelaram a presença do flagelado. Material colhido e lavado da hemocele de D. maxima infectados, também foi negativo. A inoculação de formas sanguíneas do parasita e daquelas obtidas do conteúdo intestinal de triatomíneos na hemocele revelou que os parasitas não foram capazes de manter na hemolinfa uma infecção por mais de 40 dias e que não puderam penetrar no intestino dos triatomíneos. A inoculação de hemolinfa de insetos naturalmente infectados em camundongos recém-nascidos não induziu infecção.

Studies on Trypanosoma avium Danilewsky 1885. II. Transmission by Ornithomyia avicularia L.

1. It is shown that Ornithomyia avicularia L. (Diptera, Hippoboscidae) is a vector of Trypanosoma avium in this country.2. The metacyclic trypanosomes develop in the insect's hind-gut, and infect birds by penetrating the membranes of buccal cavity and/or oesophagus and crop.3. The opportunity for infection to take place occurs when birds ingest infected insects.4. The significance of this finding in connexion with other reports of (a) vectors of avian trypanosomes, and (b) trypanosomes transmitted by hippoboscids, is discussed.5. Attempts to obtain development of T. avium in a few nymphs of Rhodnius prolixus and one adult Culex molestus, failed. Mites from an infected bird were examined for the presence of flagellates, with negative results.