Presence Of Domestic Violence Research Articles

Societal, Economic and Behavioural Predictors of Stunting Among Children Aged 24 to 59 Months: Evidence from the National Survey of Bangladesh

With long-term detrimental consequences of irreversible physical and intellectual impairment, stunting remains one of the most prevalent public health problems. This study aimed to identify the factors contributing to stunting among children aged 24 to 59 months in Bangladesh. An analysis of nutrition survey data from the Nutrition, Health and Demographic Survey of Bangladesh analysed the data from a sample of 4,182 children. A predictive model was constructed to identify the association of stunting with family socioeconomics and children’s characteristics. The study found that the development of stunting among 24- to 59-month-old children has been attributed to several factors such as household food security, child feeding practices, parental education and domestic violence. Mothers with secondary education had lower odds of having stunted children. Houses with better flooring quality reduced the probability of stunting by 50%. Children growing up in a moderately food-insecure family had higher odds of becoming stunted. Better child-feeding practices also had lower odds of stunting by 33%. The presence of domestic violence in the household increased the odds of having a stunted child. However, household sanitary conditions, safe water sources and maternal nutritional knowledge and practice were not significantly associated with stunting.

Evidence of a traumatic stress dimension of psychopathology among at-risk children living in Denmark

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) is a quantitative model of psychopathology. HiTOP proposes that trauma-related distress is a facet of Internalizing psychopathology, but recent evidence with young people suggests that it may reflect a unique dimension of psychopathology. This study assessed the latent structure of child and adolescent psychopathology to determine whether there is evidence of a unique ‘Traumatic Stress’ dimension, and how dimensions of psychopathology are associated with specific types of childhood adversity and trauma, and suicidal ideation and self-injurious behavior. Participants were children and adolescents aged 1–17 years (N = 1,800) who were in contact with the Danish child protection system due to suspected child abuse. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine the optimal latent structure of psychopathology, and structural equation modelling was used to determine how the dimensions of psychopathology were associated with different forms of trauma and adversity and suicidality/self-harm. The best fitting model included three factors of Internalizing, Externalizing, and Traumatic Stress. The Traumatic Stress dimensions was associated with older age, living outside of the family home, parental mental illness, higher levels of parental conflict, and the presence of domestic violence in the child’s home. The Traumatic Stress dimension was not associated with suicidality/self-harm. This study provides additional evidence of a distinct dimension of Traumatic Stress among young people. Further studies are needed to determine if these findings are replicable, particularly in older participants.

Distinct Associations of Deprivation and Threat With Alterations in Brain Structure in Early Childhood

The dimensional model of adversity and psychopathology hypothesizes deprivation and threat impact distinct neurobiological pathways, such as brain structure. This hypothesis has not been examined longitudinally or in young children. This study tested longitudinal associations between threat and deprivation measured in preschool and brain structure in childhood. It was hypothesized that threat would be associated with amygdala and hippocampal subcortical volume and deprivation would be associated with cortical thickness in association cortex. The study included T1-weighted scans from 72 children (5-10 years old, 54.2% female participants). Threat was measured by the presence of domestic violence, sexual abuse, physical abuse, or neighborhood violence. Deprivation was measured by the presence of neglect. Associations of deprivation or threat with brain structure were examined controlling for other dimension (deprivation or threat) and nuisance covariates using whole-brain vertex-wise analyses. Subcortical volume was extracted, and the same associations were examined using multiple regression. Threat was associated with widespread decreases in cortical surface area across the prefrontal cortex and other regions. Threat was not associated with amygdala or hippocampal volume. Deprivation was associated with increased thickness in occipital cortex, insula, and cingulate. Results suggest distinct associations of deprivation and threat on brain structure in early childhood. Threat is associated with widespread differences in surface area, and deprivation is associated with differences in cortical thickness. These observations are consistent with work in adolescence and adulthood and reflect how dimensions of adversity differentially impact neural structure.

FACTORS CAUSED ON THE EVENT OF HOUSEHOLD DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC BASED ON VICTIMOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RESPONSIBLE EFFORT

The emergence of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Indonesia requires the government to enforce regulations that have positive and negative impacts on Indonesian society. One of the regulations issued by the government is PP No. 21 of 2020 concerning Large-Scale Social Restrictions in the Context of Accelerating the Handling of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The existence of the PSBB issued by the government has a positive impact on the health sector, to reduce the number of people who are victims of Covid-9, but on the other hand the negative impact of this PSBB is that it appears in the economy because it is difficult for people to work, and some companies also lay off their employees. So that socially it does not rule out that problems arise in the household where the community is expected not to carry out activities outside the home if it is not too important. So from this government regulation, one of the household problems that arise is the presence of domestic violence. The research method presented in the writing of this journal is a normative juridical research method in which researchers look at problems from studies and literature studies from various sources as research material, such as legislation as the main material (primary legal material) and secondary legal materials from various books. - Legal books, scientific papers, scientific articles that discuss the criminal act of trafficking in persons (human trafficking).

Management of Psychiatric Disorders during the Perinatal Period.

Management of Psychiatric Disorders during the Perinatal Period.

NEKI ASPEKTI PONAŠANJA DJECE RAZVEDENIH RODITELJA – ZAPAŽANJA UČITELJA

S obzirom na učestalost razvoda brakova na čitavom prostoru Europske unije, pa i šire, cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati neke uočene promjene u ponašanju djece razvedenih roditelja te važnost uloge učitelja razredne nastave u procesu prilagodbe djeteta na nastalu obiteljsku situaciju. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku učitelja razredne nastave iz raznih dijelova Hrvatske (Primorsko-goranska županija, Brodsko-posavska županija, Koprivničko-križevačka županija, Grad Zagreb). Podaci su se prikupljali uz pomoć anketnog upitnika. Rezultati zapažanja učitelja su pokazali kako razvod roditelja nije uzrokovao promjene u eksternaliziranim ponašanjima i školskom uspjehu djece, ali su zapažene promjene u dijelu emocionalnih reakcija (strah), internaliziranih ponašanja (plašljivost) te odnosa s drugim osobama (povlačenje u sebe). Osim toga, varijable dob, spol, prisutnost nasilja u obitelji za vrijeme i/ili nakon razvoda, konfliktni razvod, održavanje redovitih kontakata s roditeljem s kojim dijete ne živi te kvaliteta suradnje učitelja i roditelja, pokazali su se statistički značajnim. Uspostavljanje veze jednog roditelja (s kojim dijete živi) s novim partnerom nije se pokazalo značajnim prediktorom promjena u nekim aspektima ponašanja djece. Rezultati istraživanja mogu predstavljati solidnu osnovu za daljnje razvijanje strukturiranih protokola u praćenju razvoja ponašanja i napredovanja djece u njihovoj ranijoj razvojnoj dobi kao jednom od značajnih perioda u životu svakog čovjeka.

Evaluating the Effects of COVID-19 on Plastic Surgery Emergencies: Protocols and Analysis From a Level I Trauma Center.

BackgroundThe COVID-19 crisis has brought many unique challenges to the healthcare system. Across the United States, social distancing measures have been put in place, including stay-at-home orders (SAH), to combat the spread of this infection. This has impacted the type and volume of traumatic injuries sustained during this time. Meanwhile, steps have been taken in our healthcare system to assure that adequate resources are available to maintain a high standard of patient care while recognizing the importance of protecting healthcare providers. Using comparative data, we aim to describe the trends in traumatic injuries managed by our Plastic Surgery service and detail the changes in consultation policies made to minimize provider exposure.MethodsA retrospective chart review was performed of all plastic surgery emergencies at our institution during the 3 weeks preceding the issuance of SAH orders in Chicago and the 3 weeks following. The electronic medical record was queried for patient age, type and mechanism of injury, location where injury was sustained, presence of domestic violence, length of inpatient hospital stays and treatment rendered. The two 3-week periods were then comparatively analyzed to determine differences and trends in these variables. and treatment rendered. The two periods were then comparatively analyzed to determine differences and trends in these variables.ResultsThere was a significant decrease in trauma consults since issuance of SAH (88 pre-SAH vs 62 post-SAH) with a marked decrease in trauma related hand injuries. There was an increase in the percentage of assault-related injuries including those associated with domestic violence, while there was an overall decrease in motor vehicle collisions. There was no notable change in the location where injuries were sustained. Significantly fewer patients were seen by house staff in the emergency room, while those requiring surgical intervention were able to receive care without delay.ConclusionStay-at-home orders in Chicago have impacted traumatic injury patterns seen by the Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery at a Level I Trauma Center. Safe and timely care can continue to be provided with thorough communication, vigilance and guidance from our colleagues.

Depression In Pregnancy: Prevalence And Clinical Correlates

Introduction: Pregnancy increases the risk of various psychiatric illness including depression. Such illness can result in prematurity, low birth weight and mother-child bonding. Depression is more common in women who have had negative experiences in previous pregnancies, have prior history of psychiatric disorder or are experiencing stressful life events. Unfortunately, psychiatric disorders among pregnant women are still undiagnosed and untreated, especially in developing country like Nepal. The aim of this study was to find out the prevalence and correlates of depression in pregnancy. 
 Material and Method: A cross-sectional, hospital based, descriptive study was conducted among 135 pregnant women attending Manipal Teaching Hospital’s antenatal clinic. Sociodemographic data and relevant clinical variables were collected using a predesigned proforma after obtaining informed written consent. The subjects were interviewed with Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI). For the assessment of correlates, regression analysis was carried out. All statistical analyses were done using SPSS v 20.0. P values < 0.05 were considered significant. 
 Results: The prevalence of depression was 13.3 % according to BDI with additional 19% fulfilling criteria of mild mood disturbance. Factors such as history of sub fertility, pregnancy-induced illness and presence of domestic violence were found to be statistically significant predictors of depression during pregnancy. 
 Conclusion: Depression can occur frequently among pregnant women. Certain factors can be identified, which further increase the risk of such mental illnesses. Thus, pregnant women who are at high risk such as with pregnancy induced illness, have history of sub fertility, exposed to domestic violence etc., must be identified and diagnosed so that they can be treated timely.

Prevalence and correlates of domestic violence among people seeking treatment for self-harm: data from a regional self-harm register

BackgroundPrevious research suggests that there is an association between domestic violence (DV) and self-harm (SH). Yet, the prevalence and clinical significance of DV among individuals presenting acutely to hospital with...

Prenatal Depression and Its Associated Risk Factors Among Pregnant Women in Bangalore: A Hospital Based Prevalence Study.

Background: Depression is the commonest psychological problem that affects a woman during her perinatal period worldwide. The risk of prenatal depression increases as the pregnancy progresses and clinically significant depressive symptoms are common in the mid and late trimester. There is a paucity of research on depression during the prenatal period in India. Given this background, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of prenatal depression and its associated risk factors among pregnant women in Bangalore, Southern India.Methods: The study was nested within an on-going cohort study. The study participants included 280 pregnant women who were attending the antenatal clinic at Jaya Nagar General Hospital (Sanjay Gandhi Hospital) in Bangalore. The data was collected by using a structured questionnaire which included. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) to screen for prenatal depression.Results: The proportion of respondents who screened positive for prenatal depression was 35.7%. Presence of domestic violence was found to impose a five times higher and highly significant risk of developing prenatal depression among the respondents. Pregnancy related anxiety and a recent history of catastrophic events were also found to be a positive predictors of prenatal depression.Conclusion: The high prevalence of prenatal depression in the present study is suggestive of its significance as a public health problem. Health care plans therefore can include screening and diagnosis of prenatal depression in the antenatal care along with other health care facilities provided.

Domestic Violence Against Women’s in India A Study

Domestic violence is a very well known and most frequent towards women’s in India. Domestic violence against women is understood as a situation supported and reinforced by gender norms and values that place women in a subordinate position in relation to men. This study reviles the presence of domestic violence in Indian women’s. An interview schedule was prepared to assess the prevalence of domestic violence. 50 women’s of Lucknow were interviewed to get an adequate result. The study showed that the alcoholism of husbands is one of the main cause of domestic violence against women’s. The result showed that Domestic violence is still prevailing in the Indian society and women’s are very less aware of the laws and organizations dealing with domestic violence. The study showed that the alcoholism of husbands is one of the main cause of domestic violence against women’s.

The Failure of All Mothers or the Mother of All Failures? Juror Perceptions of Failure to Protect Laws.

Failure to protect laws have been an area of interest among legal scholars, child and domestic violence advocates, and the social work and psychology fields with varying focuses on the societal underpinnings of the laws and their application. Despite the pervasive legal literature on "mother blaming" and the revictimization of battered women that these laws engender, few studies have empirically examined if "mother blaming" occurs in these cases, or if battered women are treated more harshly. The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of defendant sex and presence of domestic violence on mock juror decision making in a failure to protect case. The influences of juror sex on decision making were also examined. Jury eligible community members read a summary of a case in which the defendant was charged with failing to protect their child from a third-party abuser. The sex of the defendant and the presence of domestic violence were manipulated. Participants then rendered a verdict, provided sentencing recommendations, and responded to attitudinal questions about the defendant and perpetrator. Mock jurors were more likely to find the defendant guilty and view the defendant more negatively when the defendant had been the victim of domestic violence. Defendant sex did not affect outcome measures; however, female jurors were more punitive than male jurors. Results are discussed in terms of "victim blaming" and labeling theory of intimate partner violence.

Risk Factors for Domestic Violence in Women and Predictors of Development of Mental Disorders in These Women.

Based on the hypothesis that women who exposed to physical violence had lower education and income levels than those who did not, and those who got married earlier and had marriage with unwanted people had higher psychiatric disorders, the aims of this study were to determine risk factors for domestic violence and predictors of psychiatric impairment in women exposed to domestic violence. We used random selection method and included 400 married women above 18 years of age living in Adiyaman province. Socio-demographic data and exposure to physical violence and sexual coercion for participants were evaluated by a structured questionnaire. Depression scores of the women were evaluated by Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and anxiety scores were evaluated by Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Suicidal ideas of the subjects were evaluated by 17 item Suicide Intent Scale and their suicide plans, attempts, thoughts, and risk of recurrence were evaluated by 4 item Suicidal Behavior Questionnaire. 65,5% of the women (n=262) reported no violence, 19,3% (n=77) reported violence only from their spouses, 5,2% (n=21) reported violence from people other than spouse, and 10% (n=40) reported physical violence from both their spouses and other people. Logistic regression analysis showed that employment status of spouses, presence of medical/psychiatric illness in spouses, the acceptance of the view that 'Husbands can sometimes beat' by women and presence of psychiatric illness in women predicted domestic violence against these women from their spouses. Logistic regression analysis also revealed that education level, and presence of physical or sexual violence from their spouses predicted development of psychiatric disorders in women survivors of domestic violence. This study showed that opinion of women about domestic violence, presence of a psychiatric disorder in women, employment status of spouse, and presence of a medical/psychiatric illness in spouse predicted physical violence against these women. In addition, education level of women, and presence of domestic violence from their spouses predicted development of psychiatric disorder. Knowing the factors that trigger physical violence and related psychiatric impairments is really important for development of preventive and therapeutic interventions.

Postpartum depression in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

ObjectiveTo provide an estimate of the burden of postpartum depression in Indian mothers and investigate some risk factors for the condition.MethodsWe searched PubMed®, Google Scholar and Embase® databases for articles published from year 2000 up to 31 March 2016 on the prevalence of postpartum depression in Indian mothers. The search used subject headings and keywords with no language restrictions. Quality was assessed via the Newcastle–Ottawa quality assessment scale. We performed the meta-analysis using a random effects model. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression was done for heterogeneity and the Egger test was used to assess publication bias.FindingsThirty-eight studies involving 20 043 women were analysed. Studies had a high degree of heterogeneity (I2 = 96.8%) and there was evidence of publication bias (Egger bias = 2.58; 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.83–4.33). The overall pooled estimate of the prevalence of postpartum depression was 22% (95% CI: 19–25). The pooled prevalence was 19% (95% CI: 17–22) when excluding 8 studies reporting postpartum depression within 2 weeks of delivery. Small, but non-significant differences in pooled prevalence were found by mother’s age, geographical location and study setting. Reported risk factors for postpartum depression included financial difficulties, presence of domestic violence, past history of psychiatric illness in mother, marital conflict, lack of support from husband and birth of a female baby. ConclusionThe review shows a high prevalence of postpartum depression in Indian mothers. More resources need to be allocated for capacity-building in maternal mental health care in India.

Prevalence and Contributing Factors of Childhood Physical Abuse in Households and at Schools among School Adolescents in Arba Minch Town, Southern Ethiopia

Background: Though millions of children around the world are the victims and witnesses of physical abuse, every child has the right to health and a life free from violence. Therefore the objective of this study was to assess Prevalence and Contributing Factors of Childhood Physical Abuse in Households and in schools among School adolescents, Arba Minch Town. Methods: Institution based cross sectional study design was employed from Jan 11 to Feb 11/2016. The sample size of 737 was selected through multi-stage sampling techniques. Data were collected through self-administered questionnaire and interview from 7th to 10th grade students and analyzed by SPSS (IBM 20). Descriptive statistics, bivariate and multiple variable analyses were done. Results: A total of 718 (97.4 %) school children were participated in the study. Among them, 462 (64%) students faced childhood physical abuse. Of these, 77.3% abused by parents and 58.4% abused by school community. Age, sex (AOR=2.439; 95% CI=1.370, 4.348), presence of domestic violence (AOR=8.929; 95% CI=4.292, 18.519) and where the child grown up (AOR=0.460; 95% CI=0.220, 0.940) were contributing factors for childhood physical abuse. Conclusions: Majority of children in Arba Minch town have experienced childhood physical abuse at household and school environment.

Intra-family violence: experiences and perceptions of adolescents

Objectives: To unveil cases of domestic violence experienced by adolescents and to identify whether they recognize themselves in this situation. Methods: A qualitative study based on oral history was performed. A total of eight adolescent students from a public school were interviewed in the city of Salvador, Bahia, Northeastern Brazil. The data were organized according to thematic analysis and it was analyzed based on the following themes: domestic violence and adolescence. Results: The oral history of adolescents revealed a childhood and adolescence marked by the presence of domestic violence between their parents and the experience of physical abuse, humiliation, abandonment and negligence. Despite such context and health impact, adolescents did not recognize themselves as victims. Conclusion: Health education actions are required in schools and health services, mainly in primary health care, aiming to sensitize professionals about the recognition and prevention of violence. Management that prioritizes these elements as governmental policies is required.

Effect of Corporal Punishment on Sudanese Pupils from Parent’s Perspectives - Part 2

Despite the fact that corporal punishment (cp) in schools and homes proved to be of serious consequences and of no benefit, it is still an acceptable tool of disciplining children over the world notably Sudan against national acts and international convention. The importance of this research is to serve the field of child protection with background information needed for strategic planning for the prevention and promotion of positive discipline. The aim was to Study the impact of corporal punishment on pupil’s academic performance and behaviors form parent’s perspective. Through comparative analytical study included 200 parents from two schools. Where School (A) using corporal punishment and school (B) declaring not using corporal punishment. The study was conducted in the period from first of June to 30th of July 2013 using structured questionnaires that assessing socio demographic data, use of corporal punishment, believes behavior and academic consequences. Variables were completed and analyzed using parametric and non-parametric test within SPSS 16. The majority of parents were using cp to discipline their children at homes (83.4%). Parental believes about cp as right and effective tool of child discipline; increase home/school CP and decrease child number of friends. Mother Low education was significantly associated with the use of CP (p value 0.02). Most of the parents found CP of no benefits in the long run. The use of CP at home acts as moderator with school CP that made the child dislike school and significantly increases children absence from school. Low parent’s education, low income, parent’s beliefs about CP and the presence of domestic violence were proved as predictors of use of CP at homes. Negative child characteristics and recurrent school requisition for Parents were significantly related to school (A), both p values (0.01). Positive child characteristics significantly related to school (B). Although parents claimed that they rarely used CP in disciplining their children this rare use proved of negative consequences and of no benefits in long term and moral internalization. Reducing use of corporal punishment is found to be significantly associated to good behaviors and academic success. The research was replicating other international studies except increase rates of CP in children from 6-14 years, the use of CP by the parent regardless of their age group. Using cp in School or at home decrease sense of safety and put the child at risk of bullying or violence.

Effect of Corporal Punishment on Sudanese Pupils from Parent’s Perspectives: Part 1

Despite the fact that corporal punishment (cp) in schools and homes proved to be of serious consequences and of no benefit, it is still an acceptable tool of disciplining children over the world notably Sudan against national acts and international convention. The importance of this research is to serve the field of child protection with background information needed for strategic planning for the prevention and promotion of positive discipline. The aim was to Study the impact of corporal punishment on pupil’s academic performance and behaviors form parent’s perspective. Through comparative analytical study included 200 parents from two schools. Where School (A) using corporal punishment and school (B) declaring not using corporal punishment. The study was conducted in the period from first of June to 30th of July 2013 using structured questionnaires that assessing socio demographic data, use of corporal punishment, believes behavior and academic consequences. Variables were completed and analyzed using parametric and non-parametric test within SPSS 16. The majority of parents were using cp to discipline their children at homes (83.4%). Parental believes about cp as right and effective tool of child discipline; increase home/school CP and decrease child number of friends. Mother Low education was significantly associated with the use of CP (p value 0.02). Most of the parents found CP of no benefits in the long run. The use of CP at home acts as moderator with school CP that made the child dislike school and significantly increases children absence from school. Low parent’s education, low income, parent’s beliefs about CP and the presence of domestic violence were proved as predictors of use of CP at homes. Negative child characteristics and recurrent school requisition for Parents were significantly related to school (A), both p values (0.01). Positive child characteristics significantly related to school (B). Although parents claimed that they rarely used CP in disciplining their children this rare use proved of negative consequences and of no benefits in long term and moral internalization. Reducing use of corporal punishment is found to be significantly associated to good behaviors and academic success. The research was replicating other international studies except increase rates of CP in children from 6-14 years, the use of CP by the parent regardless of their age group. Using cp in School or at home decrease sense of safety and put the child at risk of bullying or violence.

Domestic Violence in Sylhet, Bangladesh: Analysing the Experiences of Abused Women

The presence of domestic violence (DV) within marriages is a universal phenomenon and Bangladesh is no exception. The current study explores the nature, pattern and intensity of DV perpetrated against married women, along with an investigation into the socio-economic and cultural factors behind this phenomenon, specifically, in Sylhet, Bangladesh. For this, the researchers conducted in-depth interviews with 42 victims of DV who sought help from two social welfare organisations that explicitly dealt with the problem of abused women in Sylhet. The victims stated that their husbands, along with their in-laws, perpetrated multiple forms of physical, psychological and sexual abuse on them. The study revealed that there were multiple reasons behind the presence of DV, including, demands for dowry, poverty, a wife’s financial and emotional dependency, extramarital affairs, polygyny, the desire for a male child, an ingrained culture of violence and so on. The victims, it appeared, struggled to remain in wedlock despite repeated instances of abuse. In the absence of any viable alternatives, these women sought the help of organisations as the violence in their domestic spaces spiraled out of control. The study concluded that a continuing state of DV seemed almost inevitable in this region and was a reflection of a woman’s subordinate status in society emanating from hegemonic patriarchal values and traditions.

Association of Socioeconomic Factors to Domestic Violence and Murder of Women: The Case of Yucatán, México

Registration of deaths classified as femicide, is an issue that occupies a breach of law, and that in this matter inconsistencies and absences in the information generated persist and persist in popular culture a strong stigma that various social groups and affected (victims) lead to underreporting of gender violence. Documentary research that conducted to determine the association of geographic areas and social factors related to violence to women occurred in the state of Yucatan during 2004 to 2014. Of the major findings of this study are: there are significant differences in the presence of domestic violence with the economic sector with a value of the test statistic of 13,500 with two degrees of freedom, a significant difference with a P-value of 0.001 (P-value < 0.05) was obtained, and P-value 0.000 (P-value < 0.05) for the murders of women. Geospatial distribution shows that the municipalities highest number of cases reported are found in large cities, and related to the three sectors of economic activity. Geographical distribution is North, South and East of the state. We conclude that it is required to have a surveillance system for the prevention of gender violence, also provide therapy to both men and women who have lived or have used violence systematically and taught by trained and sensitive to provide such care staff, and thus prevent deaths from gender violence.