Preoperative Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography Research Articles

Effect of Intraoperative Cholangiography During Cholecystectomy on Outcome After Gallstone Pancreatitis

Acute gallstone pancreatitis has traditionally been managed by early cholecystectomy with intraoperative cholangiography (IOC). To evaluate the effect of IOC on patient outcome, we analyzed all patients operated on for acute gallstone pancreatitis at our institution over a 3-year period. A total of 200 patients (37 open, 163 laparoscopic) were evaluated. Nineteen of 34 patients who underwent preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) were found to have common bile duct (CBD) stones. The 59 patients who underwent cholecystectomy with IOC had significantly longer operative times compared to the 141 patients who underwent cholecystectomy alone (167 vs. 105 minutes for open [ P = 0.008] and 89 vs. 68 minutes for laparoscopic [ P < 0.0001] operations). Of the 59 patients who underwent IOC, only nine (15%) had abnormal cholangiograms, and CBD exploration in seven revealed stones in four patients, edematous ampullae in two, and no abnormality in one. Six of eight patients (5 IOC, 3 no IOC) who required immediate postoperative ERCP were noted to have CBD stones. Patients who underwent IOC had significantly longer postoperative hospital stays (3.8 vs. 2.0 days [ P = 0.007]). The incidence of retained CBD stones following surgery was similar (5.1% IOC, 2.8% no IOC). Although 7 of 122 patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy without IOC were readmitted, only one was found on ERCP to have a retained CBD stone. Age, sex, preoperative days, procedure type, and biliary-pancreatic complications after discharge did not differ significantly between patients with and without IOC. We conclude that IOC in patients operated on for acute gallstone pancreatitis results in a longer operative time and a prolonged postoperative course, but has no effect on the incidence of retained CBD stones. ( J Gastrointest Surg 2002;6:575–581.)

Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography

Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) refers to selective or partially selective MR imaging of the pancreatic and biliary ducts. Complete or partial selectivity for ductal imaging is an important component of this definition, because this selectivity distinguishes MRCP from other cross-sectional modalities such as CT and ultrasound, which can also be used to assess pancreatic and biliary ductal disease. MRCP was first described in the 1980s. Since then MRCP has undergone considerable technical evolution and maturation and has reached the stage at which MRCP is a viable alternative to diagnostic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in most settings (Fig. 1). This article discusses some of the relative advantages and disadvantages of MRCP, important aspects of technique, and major clinical applications. Emphasis is placed on the scientific data supporting the contention that MRCP is competitive with ERCP. It should be noted that many clinical studies of MRCP use ERCP as the standard of reference. This carries the implicit and unstated assumption that ERCP results are absolute and objective. It is true that in practice ERCP is often considered the definitive test for structural disease of the pancreatic and biliary ducts. However, as with any other imaging test, ERCP is subject to error and variability, as illustrated by studies in which clinical or surgical results are used as the standard of reference. For example, in a study of 124 patients with suspected pancreatic cancer in which the standard of reference was biopsy or one year of clinical follow-up, the sensitivity and specificity of MRCP for the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer were 84% and 97%, respectively, compared with a sensitivity and specificity of 70% and 94% for ERCP. 1 Adamek HE Albert J Breer H Weitz M Schilling D Riemann JF. Pancreatic cancer detection with magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: a prospective controlled study. Lancet. 2000; 356: 190-193 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (225) Google Scholar Similarly, in a study of 72 patients undergoing cholecystectomy, preoperative ERCP had a sensitivity and specificity of 91% and 100%, respectively, for the diagnosis of common duct stones, using intraoperative cholangiography and bile duct exploration as a standard of reference. 2 Frey CF Burbige EJ Meinke WB Pullos TG Wong HN Hickman DM et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Am J Surg. 1982; 144: 109-113 Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar

Preoperative endoscopic sphincterotomy in the treatment of patients with cholecystocholedocholithiasis.

Preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) are the most common methods for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with cholecystocholedocholithiasis. We evaluated the selection criteria for preoperative ERCP examination and the results of endoscopic-laparoscopic treatment of patients with choledocholithiasis. Between January 1993 and December 1998, 1630 patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis were admitted for surgical intervention. Preoperative ERCP was performed in 247 patients according to the selection criteria. The criteria to perform ERCP were dilated common bile duct (CBD; more than 8 mm), abnormal serum liver test results, and a recent history of pancreatitis. Endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) was performed if CBD stones were found during the procedure. LC was then carried out within 3 days after ES. Of the 247 patients selected for preoperative ERCP, CBD stones were confirmed in 146 patients (59.1%). ES was successful in 141 patients, and stone clearance was achieved in 133 patients, resulting in a 94.3% success rate. Eight patients (5.5%) had complications after endoscopic intervention, all of which resolved uneventfully. Open operative procedures were carried out in a total of 31 patients. Overall, 115 patients were successfully treated by this endoscopic laparoscopic sequence. The length of hospital stay in these groups was significantly lower than that for patients in whom an open method was employed. Preoperative ES combined with LC is a safe and effective therapy for cholecystocholedocholithiasis, and the criteria that we used for the selection of patients seem to be appropriate.

Laparoscopic transcystic bile duct stenting in the management of common bile duct stones

The management of patients with common bile duct stones associated with stones in the gall bladder remains controversial. Over the three-year period from 1996 to 1999, patients with cholelithiasis and known choledocholithiasis, or choledocholithiasis found at laparoscopic cholecystectomy, were initially treated by placing a stent across the sphincter of Oddi. The stent was pushed along a guide wire through the cystic duct and then down the common bile duct, before the cystic duct was closed. Subsequently, the stent was used to facilitate performance of a needle knife endoscopic sphincterotomy. The stent was then removed, a cholangiography was performed and the common bile duct was cleared. Patients with persistent jaundice usually had a preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography. Transcystic stenting was the 'intention-to-treat' basis of therapy for 56 of the patients. The placement of the stent only failed once when the stent became trapped in the cystic duct. Complications of the operation included: pain and jaundice (n = 2), cholangitis (n = 1), and pulmonary embolus (n = 1). The median postoperative hospitalization was 2 days (range: 1-15). Five further patients had common bile duct stones removed via a choledochotomy; a stent was placed through the choledochotomy before its closure. The selective common bile duct cannulation rate at the first endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography, was 98%. A second endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography was required in 15% of patients. The only complication of all the endoscopic procedures was a single case of mild cholangitis; there were no cases of pancreatitis. A treatment option open to all surgeons for non-jaundiced patients with known choledocholithiasis or choledocholithiasis found at operative cholangiogram, is the transcystic stenting of the sphincter of Oddi at the time of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. At a subsequent sitting, the common bile duct can be safely cleared endoscopically using a sphincterotomy facilitated by the stent.

Selective use of preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

The use of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in the management of suspected common bile duct (CBD) stones prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy is common. The associated morbidity can be significant. The present study determines significant predictors of CBD stones and improves the selection of patients for preoperative ERCP. All preoperative ERCP for suspected CBD stones in the year 1998 were studied retrospectively. Univariate and multivariate analyses of a number of clinical, biochemical and radiological variables were carried out to determine the best predictors of CBD stones. A total of 112 patients had successful preoperative ERCP. Sixty-one per cent of these were negative for stones and the morbidity was 9%. Univariate analysis revealed the following variables as predictors: cholangitis (P = 0.006), abnormal serum bilirubin > or = 3 days (P = 0.002), serum alkaline phosphatase > or = 130 U/L (P = 0.002), deranged liver function tests (P = < 0.001) and CBD diameter > or = 8 mm (P = 0.009) with positive predictive values of 80%, 68%, 49%, 38% and 52%, respectively. Multivariate analysis revealed the model with the best ability to discriminate for CBD stones (P = 0.0005) was cholangitis, abnormal serum bilirubin for > or = 3 days and CBD diameter > or = 8 mm. The best predictors from this study had a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 27%. The predictors of CBD stones are imprecise. Until laparoscopic exploration of CBD becomes widely available, ERCP prior to cholecystectomy will remain popular. The use of stricter selection criteria can reduce the number of negative preoperative ERCP.

Pattern of management of common bile duct stones in the laparoscopic era: A NSW survey

The management of common bile duct (CBD) stones in the laparoscopic era remains controversial with various management strategies employed by surgeons. The aim of this study was to ascertain the common practice across a single Australian state, and to see if a 'best practice' for CBD stone management could be established. A questionnaire was sent to 390 general surgeons in New South Wales in April 1999. Data collected included the type of practice, number of cholecystectomies performed, preoperative markers of CBD stones, indications for preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), use of operative cholangiography (OC) and the management of CBD stones found on OC. The questionnaire was returned by 223 (57%) surgeons. Fifty-four (14%) of these respondents were excluded as they did not perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy, leaving 169 (43%) respondents for analysis. The preoperative indicators for CBD stones were ranked as: jaundice > dilated CBD on ultrasound > serum bilirubin > serum alkaline phosphatase/alanine aminotransferase > previous biliary pancreatitis. Preoperative ERCP would be performed by 88% for persistent jaundice or cholangitis, 33% for elevated liver function test, 25% for dilated CBD and 24% for biliary pancreatitis. Operative cholangiography is routinely performed by 67%, selectively by 29% and never by 4%. If CBD stones are encountered 47% would attempt laparoscopic clearance via the cystic duct or choledochotomy; however, 72% replied that they would use postoperative ERCP as part of their usual strategy for the management of CBD stones. There was no clear common pattern for the management of suspected or proven CBD stones. There were three management issues in which there was a 'common practice'. These were: (i) the use of preoperative ERCP for patients with persistent jaundice or cholangitis; and the routine use of (ii) OC and (iii) postoperative ERCP to clear the CBD, assuming other methods had failed.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy without routine operative cholangiography does not result in significant problems related to retained stones.

This study investigated whether failure to identify common bile duct stones at laparoscopic cholecystectomy results in significant postoperative complications related to retained stones. We performed a retrospective analysis of the case notes of 377 consecutive patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy without routine operative cholangiography under a single surgeon in a district general hospital between 1995 and 1999. Highly selective preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) was employed to identify and manage suspected bile duct stones in pancreatitis, jaundice, persistently elevated liver function tests, or a dilated common bile duct. Eighteen (4.8%) of 377 patients presented postoperatively with symptoms/signs suggesting biliary pathology. Two (0.5%) were confirmed to have retained duct stones/debris (ultrasound/ERCP); both recovered with conservative treatment. Only 1 patient of 274 (0.4%) without preoperative ERCP subsequently presented with a symptomatic retained stone, the other having been stented preoperatively. Highly selective preoperative ERCP without routine operative cholangiography is not associated with a significant increase in morbidity/mortality related to retained stones following laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Selective use of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography to facilitate laparoscopic cholecystectomy without cholangiography. A review of 1139 consecutive cases.

The aim of this study was to show that laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be performed safely without routine intraoperative cholangiography. We performed a retrospective analysis of 1139 consecutive patients (376 men and 763 women with an average age of 51.4 years) who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy between 1991 and 1999. In all, 227 patients (20%) were selected to undergo preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) on the basis of four criteria for risk of stones. ERCP allowed us to make a diagnosis of biliary stones in 53.3% of the selected patients. Extraction of the stones was successful in 97% of the cases. In 14% of cases, ERCP was normal; in 32.7%, some useful diagnostic information was obtained. There were three complications (pancreatitis) following endoscopy (complication rate, 1.3%). Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was successful in 92% of patients. The postoperative morbidity rate was 3.2% (major complications, 0.5%). There were no deaths. During a follow-up period ranging from 3 to 97 months, six patients (0.6%) were found to have residual biliary stones. This study confirms the hypothesis that laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be performed safely without routine intraoperative cholangiography.

Patient Evaluation and Management With Selective Use of Magnetic Resonance Cholangiography and Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography Before Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

To assess the utility of triage guidelines for patients with cholelithiasis and suspected choledocholithiasis, incorporating selective use of magnetic resonance cholangiography (MRC) and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) before laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). ERCP is the most frequently used modality for the diagnosis and resolution of choledocholithiasis before LC. MRC has recently emerged as an accurate, noninvasive modality for the detection of choledocholithiasis. However, useful strategies for implementing this diagnostic modality for patient evaluation before LC have not been investigated. During a 16-month period, the authors prospectively evaluated all patients before LC using triage guidelines incorporating patient information obtained from clinical evaluation, serum chemistry analysis, and abdominal ultrasonography. Patients were then assigned to one of four groups based on the level of suspicion for choledocholithiasis (group I, extremely high; group 2, high; group 3, moderate; group 4, low). Group 1 patients underwent ERCP and clearance of common bile duct stones; group 2 patients underwent MRC; group 3 patients underwent LC with intraoperative cholangiography; and group 4 patients underwent LC without intraoperative cholangiography. Choledocholithiasis was detected in 43 of 440 patients (9.8%). The occurrence of choledocholithiasis among patients in the four groups were 92.6% (25/27), 32.4% (12/37), 3.8% (2/52), and 0.9% (3/324) for groups 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively (P <.001). MRC was used for 8.4% (37/440) of patients. Patient triage resulted in the identification of common bile duct stones during preoperative ERCP in 92.3% (36/39) of the patients. Unsuspected common bile duct stones occurred in six patients (1.4%). The probability of choledocholithiasis can be accurately assessed based on information obtained during the initial noninvasive evaluation. Stratification of risks for choledocholithiasis facilitates patient management with the most appropriate diagnostic studies and interventions, thereby improving patient care and resource utilization.

Routine intraoperative cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy minimizes unnecessary endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in children

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the necessity for intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) during pediatric laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Methods: A retrospective review of 100 consecutive patients undergoing LC was conducted. Results: Ninety-eight children underwent successful LC. The average age was 11.3 years. IOC was successful in 55 of 63 studies. Operating time for patients with IOC averaged 91 minutes, and without IOC, 67 minutes. Twenty children had preoperative ultrasound, laboratory, or clinical evidence of common bile duct (CBD) stones. Fifteen of these 20 children actually had CBD stones. Three additional children who lacked any ultrasound, clinical, or laboratory evidence of choledocholithiasis had unsuspected CBD stones. Eight children, therefore, had ultrasound, clinical, or laboratory findings not predictive of the actual state of the CBD. Sixteen children underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), 9 preoperatively and 7 postoperatively. Four preoperative ERCP studies showed no CBD stones. There were no complications from performing IOC. Conclusions: (1) CBD stones are common in children with gallstones, (18 of 100 patients). (2) Preoperative studies and clinical findings may not predict accurately the presence or absence of CBD stones. (3) IOC should be routinely performed in children before the use of ERCP to avoid unnecessary ERCP unless CBD stones are specifically visualized by ultrasound scan. J Pediatr Surg 36:881-884. Copyright © 2001 by W.B. Saunders Company.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in adults with sickle cell disease.

Chronic hemolysis predisposes adults with sickle cell disease (SCD) to the formation of bilirubinate cholelithiasis. To study the impact of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) on this groups, we reviewed our records of all patients with SCD and cholelithiasis treated electively from 1991 to 1999. During that period, 13 consecutive patients with SCD underwent elective LC for symptomatic cholelithiasis. Nine patients (69.2%) were managed with a preoperative transfusion regimen to achieve a hemoglobin value of >/=10 g/dl, independent of hemoglobin S percentage. Five patients who presented with jaundice were referred for preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), which identified choledocholithiasis in two of them. Three other patients underwent intraoperative cholangiography, which revealed common bile duct stones in one patient. One patient developed pyrexia for 2 days. There were no vaso-occlusive crises or deaths. The mean hospital stay was 3.3 days. LC has proven to be a safe and efficacious method for the treatment of symptomatic cholelithiasis in this high-risk population. Hematologists are now more willing to refer early, well-prepared patients with SCD and uncomplicated gallbladder disease for elective LC.

A balanced approach to choledocholithiasis.

We set out to review and evaluate the results of an algorithm for managing choledocholithiasis in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. We performed retrospective review of patients with choledocholithiasis at the time of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) between March 1993 and August 1999. All patients were operated on under the direction of one surgeon (M.E.A), following a consistent algorithm that relies primarily on laparoscopic transcystic common bile duct exploration (TCCBDE) but uses laparoscopic choledochotomy (LCD) when the duct and stones are large or if the ductal anatomy is suboptimal for TCCBDE. Intraoperative endoscopic retrograde sphincterotomy (ERS) is done if sphincterotomy is required to facilitate common bile duct exploration (CBDE). Postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is utilized when this fails. Preoperative ERCP is used only for high-risk patients. A total of 728 LC were performed, and there were 60 instances (8.2%) of choledocholithiasis. Primary procedures consisted of 47 TCCBDE; 37 of them required no other treatment. In five cases, the stones were flushed with no exploration. Intraoperative ERS was performed three times as the only form of duct exploration. LCD was utilized twice; one case also required intraoperative ERS, and the other had a postoperative ERCP for stent removal. One patient with small stones was observed, with no sequelae. Preoperative ERCP was done twice as the primary procedure. Of the 10 cases that were not completely cleared by TCCBDE, three had a postoperative ERCP and seven had an intraoperative ERS, one of which required a postoperative ERCP. There were three complications (6%) related to CBDE, with no long-term sequelae. There were four postoperative complications (6.7%) and no deaths. The mean number of procedures per patient was 1.12. The average postoperative hospital stay was 1.8 days (range, 0-14). Choledocholithiasis can be managed safely by laparoscopic techniques, augmenting with ERCP as necessary. This protocol minimizes the number of procedures and decreases the hospital stay.

Erratum to: Evaluation of operative cholangiography in 2043 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a case for the selective operative cholangiogram

BACKGROUND There is still some controversy over whether to use laparoscopic operative cholangiograms routinely (RLOC) or selectively (SLOC). Due to their high cost as well as other issues, in March 1997 we converted from RLOC to SLOC. The purpose of this study was to validate that decision. METHODS The results of 2043 laparoscopic cholecystectomies (LC) were compiled and analyzed. The results of RLOC in 1556 patients undergoing LC from March 1990 through February 1997 were compared to the results of SLOC in 16 patients undergoing LC from March 1989 through February 1990 and 471 patients undergoing LC from March 1997 through December 1998. The literature was reviewed and data were compiled. Reasons that are typically given for operative cholangiograms (OC) were collected and scrutinized. Finally, cost surveys for RLOC and related procedures were obtained. RESULTS Overall, laparoscopic operative cholangiogram (LOC) was attempted in 1661 patients and was successful in 1656 cases (99.7%). Bile duct stones (BDS) were evident in 166 patients. Laparoscopic bile duct exploration (LBDE) was attempted in all cases. None were referred for preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). In the RLOC group, evidence of BDS was observed in 136 patients (9%). Forty-two were unsuspected (2.8%) and five were false positive (0.3%). In a collection of other RLOC studies, the average rate of unsuspected BDS was 2.9%, while the average rate of false positive cholangiograms was 1.6%. In the SLOC group, LOC was indicated in 139 of 487 patients (28.6%). None of the patients who did not have a LOC developed symptomatic residual BDS in < or = 11 years of follow-up. In a large collection of other SLOC studies, the rate of symptomatic residual BDS was 0.3%. A cost survey in February 1997 revealed that the average minimum global charge (MGC) for an OC was $1283.21; for a transcystic duct LBDE it was $1055.10, and for a transcholedochal LBDE it was $3263.61 [corrected]. The MGC for an ERCP with papillotomy was $4303.00. Thus, to avoid one patient with symptomatic residual BDS, 354 unnecessary procedures (333 RLOC, 18 LBDE, and three postoperative ERCP) costing $473,927.52 would be performed. There were no false negatives, bile duct injuries, or other complications attributable to RLOC or SLOC. CONCLUSIONS The increased morbidity and cost of RLOC to avoid symptomatic residual BDS is not justified. All other reasons given for RLOC are either flawed or indicate that the procedure can be safely employed selectively. SLOC is an effective method of verifying suspected BDS and is safer and less expensive than RLOC.

Operative management of chronic pancreatitis in children.

Chronic pancreatitis in childhood is a rare but potentially debilitating disorder, and failure of conservative therapy with chronic pain medication use is common. We hypothesize that aggressive surgical therapy may hold promise for long-term remission. Retrospective analysis of data collected prospectively for 12 years. Tertiary care children's hospital. Eighteen children (aged 3-13 years, 11 girls) underwent surgical treatment of chronic pancreatitis after 1 to 6 years of various medical therapies (parenteral nutrition, somatostatin, or pain medication). These patients required a mean +/- SD 6 +/- 0 hospitalizations before operation. Pancreatitis was familial in 9 patients, idiopathic in 5, and secondary to trauma and medication use in 2 each. Preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography showed pancreatic duct dilatation in 7, strictures in 5, ductal stones in 4, and normal findings in 2. The operative therapy consisted of longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy in 2 children (both children failed pancreaticojejunostomy but improved after undergoing pancreatectomy) and distal pancreatectomy with Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy in 16 children. Survival, need for rehospitalization or reoperation, and chronic pain medication requirements. All patients survived. Follow-up ranged from 1 to 15 years. Thirteen (72%) of 18 patients have required no further hospitalizations or medications. Two patients required a second operation to convert their longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy to distal pancreatectomy, and 3 patients have required 2 to 5 additional hospitalizations for recurrent pancreatitis. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography on 5 patients 2 to 4 years postoperatively showed patent distal pancreaticojejunostomy. This series suggests that distal pancreatectomy and pancreaticojejunostomy are effective treatments for this difficult group of patients, while longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy was ineffective. Long-term relief of pain and reduced need for rehospitalization are the usual results after this procedure.

Cost-effective management of common bile duct stones: a decision analysis of the use of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), intraoperative cholangiography, and laparoscopic bile duct exploration.

There are a variety of approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of common bile duct (CBD) stones in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Decision modeling was used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of four strategies for managing CBD stones around the time of LC: (a) routine preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) (preoperative ERCP), (b) LC with intraoperative cholangiography (IOC), followed by laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCDE), (c) LC with IOC, followed by ERCP (postoperative ERCP), and (d) expectant management (LC without any tests for CBD stones). Local hospital data were used to estimate costs. Cost-effectiveness was expressed in terms of the cost per case of residual CBD stones prevented (in excess of the cost of LC alone). Diagnostic test characteristics, procedure success rates, and adverse event probabilities were derived from a systematic review of the literature. Sensitivity analysis was used to explore the effect of uncertainty on the results of the model. LC alone was the least costly strategy, but it was also the least effective. Of the more aggressive strategies, LCDE and preoperative ERCP were associated with marginal costs of $5993.60 and $299,259.35, respectively, per case of residual CBD stones prevented. Postoperative ERCP was more costly and less effective than LCDE, but it had a lower cost-effectiveness ratio than preoperative ERCP when the prevalence of CBD stones was <80%. Compared to other common approaches, laparoscopic CBD exploration is a cost-effective method of managing CBD stones in patients who undergo LC. If expertise in LCDE is unavailable, selective postoperative ERCP is preferred over routine preoperative ERCP, unless the probability of CBD stones is very high (>80%).

Elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Efficient use of operating time has become a key concern. The aim of this study was to determine preoperative factors that can predict extended duration of operating time (>90 min) for laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Data collected prospectively on 827 consecutive patients who underwent elective LC between 1990 and 1997 were analyzed. Factors evaluated included age, gender; body mass index; comorbidity; duration of symptoms; history of jaundice, pancreatitis, or abdominal surgery; dilated common bile duct or thick-walled gallbladder on ultrasound; preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES); and surgeon experience. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify factors predicting a long operation. Operating time was longer than 90 min in 276 patients (33%). Predictors of extended operation time were age older than 55 years (odds ratio [OR] = 9.7), preoperative ES (OR = 2.8), and a thick-walled gallbladder on ultrasound (OR = 2.5). These predictors may be useful in planning theater lists and anesthesia management, and in selecting patients for day surgery.

Common Bile Duct Stones: The Role of Preoperative, Intraoperative, and Postoperative ERCP

The indications for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) to demonstrate the presence of common bile duct stones has changed in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Preoperative ERCP is indicated when there is strong evidence of common bile duct stones, ie, jaundice, cholangitis, ultrasound demonstration of a common bile duct stone, and specific enzyme elevations. Preoperative ERCP is not indicated in mild gallstone pancreatitis. ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy as the only treatment regimen is successful in elderly patients with severe comorbid illness who have gallstones and common bile duct stones. Intraoperative ERCP does not play a role in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Transcystic common duct stone removal or laparoscopic choledochotomy is becoming the approach to common duct stones demonstrated by intraoperative cholangiography. Postoperative ERCP is indicated when intraoperative removal of common bile duct stones is unsuccessful. It is important to note that magnetic resonance cholangiography will play an increasing role and will reduce the indications and frequency of the use of ERCP.

Prospective analysis of a scoring system to predict choledocholithiasis.

The management of choledocholithiasis in the laparoscopic era remains debatable. A common policy is to perform preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) on patients suspected of having common bile duct (CBD) stones, using standard risk criteria. The aim of this study was to evaluate prospectively a scoring system designed to improve the accuracy of CBD stone prediction before laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Known clinical, biochemical and radiological risk factors for CBD stones were analysed retrospectively in 233 patients. The presence (n = 77) or absence (n = 156) of CBD stones was determined by preoperative ERCP and/or laparoscopic cholangiography. Using multivariate analysis, the significant risk factors for CBD stones were identified and a new preoperative scoring system was developed. A score of 3 or more was taken as the cut-off point to suggest CBD stones and the need for preoperative ERCP. This scoring system was then tested prospectively in 211 consecutive patients with symptomatic gallstones requiring surgery. Patients whose bile ducts could not be demonstrated by ERCP or operative cholangiography were excluded. Fifty-five patients scored 3 or more (predicted ERCP rate of 29 per cent), of whom 23 (42 per cent) had proven CBD stones. Intraoperative cholangiography was successful in 87 per cent. Five patients (4 per cent) who scored less than 3 had small stones (less than 5 mm) demonstrated at operative cholangiography. The overall sensitivity and specificity of this scoring were 82 and 80 per cent respectively. Formal risk assessment of the presence of CBD stones using this scoring system is simple and may be used for preoperative selection of patients for biliary tract imaging by magnetic resonance cholangiography or ERCP.

Management of Choledocholithiasis in the Era of Laparoscopic Surgery

Laparoscopic biliary surgery is changing the management of choledocholithiasis. Between November 1989 and December 1998, 2834 cholecystectomies were performed at two institutions. Choledocholithiasis was suspected in 420 patients on the basis of elevated preoperative laboratory and ultrasound criteria [bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase, and common bile duct (CBD) size]. One hundred seventeen patients had preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) because of persistent elevation in their enzymes beyond 24 to 48 hours or as an emergency. Laparoscopic intraoperative cholangiogram was attempted in 329 patients whose enzymes fell rapidly within the first 24 to 48 hours or had a failed ERCP. Eighty-one of the 329 were found to have stones. Seventy-three had laparoscopic attempt to clear the CBD, with success in 62 patients (85%). This included 41 transcystic duct and 21 direct CBD exploration. Eight patients had post-operative ERCP for retained stones. Six (0.25%) were in patients with normal preoperative enzymes. We conclude that choledocholithiasis can be suspected with preoperative laboratory and ultrasound criteria. By waiting 24 to 48 hours (except in an emergency), a good number of CBD stones will pass. With increases in laparoscopic experience, laparoscopic removal of CBD stones may replace preoperative ERCP. The small number of cases of retained or missed stones that occur with the use of selective cholangiography can be easily handled with postoperative ERCP.

Choledocholithiasis: Evolving Intraoperative Strategies

In the era of open cholecystectomy, common bile duct stones were approached by traditional choledocholithotomy. Retained or recurrent stones discovered after cholecystectomy were approached by endoscopic extraction techniques or repeat surgery. With the advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the approach to choledocholithiasis became more problematic as techniques for laparoscopic extraction were rudimentary. Preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography rapidly became an adjunct to laparoscopic cholecystectomy when common duct stones were likely. Experience, however, revealed that many of these procedures were unnecessary. With developing sophistication of laparoscopic techniques, a variety of approaches to common duct stones developed. These included: transcystic extraction, direct laparoscopic choledocholithotomy, intraoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, antegrade sphincterotomy, and transcystic placement of a common duct stent with subsequent endoscopic sphincterotomy and stone extraction. It is the purpose of this article to define the current role of each of these methods in the laparoscopic approach to choledocholithiasis.