Prehistoric Stone Research Articles

중국 요동반도 남부 선사시대 적석분의 고고학적 검토

Stone mound tombs, in which the deceased was placed upon the ground and the burial covered by stones, have a restricted spatial distribution and are observed mainly in the southern Liaodong Peninsula of China, the Amnok (Yalu) River basin, and the Han River basin. In this study, analysis was undertaken on the prehistoric stone mound tombs of the southern Liaodong Peninsula of China in order to lay down the foundations for future re-search on the relationship between the stone mound tombs of the different regions. The stone mound tomb was built from the end of the Neolithic Age until the introduc-tion of iron culture exclusively within the southern Liaodong Peninsula region; therefore, it can be regarded as a very conservative and exclusive tomb tradition. Stone mound tombs can be divided according to structure type into linear attached multiple tombs and clusters of single tombs featuring multiple burials. An increase in the latter can be observed over time. A change in burial method from single individual to multiple individual burials in tombs occurred, and cremation took place at multiple individual tombs. Linear attached tombs corresponded with single individual burials, and clustered tombs corresponded with multiple individual burials. Cremation also increased over time. The stone mound tombs of the southern Liaodong Peninsula were popularly used during the Bronze Age but their use came to an end around the period of the Warring States and the Qin-Han transition in the Chinese mainland. The stone mound tombs of Gangouzi, Changbai, in the upper-middle reaches of the Amnok River and the stone mound tombs of Seokchon-dongg, Seoul, are linear attached multiple tombs, the stone mound tombs in Jeongseon, Gwangju, and Yongin are clusters of single tombs featuring multiple burials. Therefore it can be said that there are similarities, in terms of structure and buri-al method, between these tombs of the Amnok and Han River regions and those of the southern Liaodong Peninsula, although a direct casual relationship cannot be posited. This relationship must be further explored within Korean archaeology, as the appearance and termination of the stone mound tomb tradition in the southern Liaodong Peninsula is re-spectively linked to the Neolithic Age to Bronze Age transition and the Bronze Age to Iron Age transition.

Prehistoric Stone Ornaments from Phromtin Tai, Central Thailand: New Perspectives on Workshop Traditions through the Study of Drilling Methods

abstract: The multi-component site of Phromtin Tai, Thailand is notable for its long occupation from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 700–500 b.c.e.) through early historic periods (ca. c.e. 500–900). Multiple field seasons of excavation in burial and habitation areas at the site have recovered a large number of glass and stone beads. Here we present the study of 57 stone beads from the site using qualitative and quantitative methods that demonstrate the presence of multiple stone ornament workshop traditions. Examination of perforations from beads and pendants made from regionally available raw materials of marble, nephrite, serpentine, and other undetermined stone have identified the use of metal drills with abrasives and diamond drills. These drilling techniques along with the distinctive shapes of some finely made beads, as well as the reworking of older broken beads suggests the presence of different scales and organization of local production in Southeast Asia. The different shapes and production processes of carnelian and banded agate beads also may represent various workshop traditions. Some of these latter beads may have originated in South Asia, while others may have been made in different regions of Southeast Asia. This study demonstrates that careful examination of ornament production techniques, and especially bead perforation technology, can be used to identify the presence of different workshop traditions allowing for more fine-grained consideration of inter- and intra-regional bead exchange networks in Southeast Asia. The presence of many semi-precious stone beads of different materials and having morphologically and technologically distinct features at Phromtin Tai demonstrate the active consumption of the beads by social elites at the site. These diversified and exotic status markers represent an intensification and acceleration of the economy and social complexity at Phromtin Tai.

Prehistoric Stone Ornaments from Phromtin Tai, Central Thailand: New Perspectives on Workshop Traditions through the Study of Drilling Methods

The multi-component site of Phromtin Tai, Thailand is notable for its long occupation from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 700 - 500 B.C.E.) through early historic periods (ca. C.E. 500 - 900). Multiple field seasons of excavation in burial and habitation areas at the site have recovered a large number of glass and stone beads. Here we present the study of 57 stone beads from the site using qualitative and quantitative methods that demonstrate the presence of multiple stone ornament workshop traditions. Examination of perforations from beads and pendants made from regionally available raw materials of marble, nephrite, serpentine, and other undetermined stone have identified the use of metal drills with abrasives and diamond drills. These drilling techniques along with the distinctive shapes of some finely made beads, as well as the reworking of older broken beads suggests the presence of different scales and organization of local production in Southeast Asia. The different shapes and production processes of carnelian and banded agate beads also may represent various workshop traditions. Some of these latter beads may have originated in South Asia, while others may have been made in different regions of Southeast Asia. This study demonstrates that careful examination of ornament production techniques, and especially bead perforation technology, can be used to identify the presence of different workshop traditions allowing for more fine-grained consideration of inter- and intra-regional bead exchange networks in Southeast Asia. The presence of many semi-precious stone beads of different materials and having morphologically and technologically distinct features at Phromtin Tai demonstrate the active consumption of the beads by social elites at the site. These diversified and exotic status markers represent an intensification and acceleration of the economy and social complexity at Phromtin Tai. KEYWORDS: stone beads, bead drilling, bead production, Central Thailand, Iron Age.

Ecological strategies of bacterial communities in prehistoric stone wall paintings across weathering gradients: A case study from the Borana zone in southern Ethiopia

Rock art paintings represent fragile ecosystems supporting complex microbial communities tuned to the lithic substrate and climatic conditions. The composition and activity of these microbial communities associated with different weathering patterns affecting rock art sites remain unexplored. This study aimed to explore how bacterial communities adapt their ecological strategies based on substrate weathering, while also examining the role of their metabolic pathways in either biodeterioration or bioprotection of the underlying stone. SEM-EDS investigations coupled with 16S rRNA gene sequencing and PICRUSt2 analysis were applied on different weathered surfaces that affect southern Ethiopian rock paintings to investigate the relationships between the current stone microbiome and weathering patterns. The findings revealed that samples experiencing low and high weathering reached a climax stage characterized by stable microenvironments and limited resources. This condition favored K-strategist microorganisms, leading to reduced α-biodiversity and a community with a positive or neutral impact on the substrate. In contrast, moderately-weathered samples displayed diverse microhabitats, resulting in the prevalence of r-strategist bacteria, increased α-biodiversity, and the presence of specialist microorganisms. Moreover, the bacterial communities in moderately-weathered samples demonstrated the highest potential for carbon fixation, stress responses, and complete nitrogen and sulfur cycles. This bacterial community also showed the potential to negatively impact the underlying substrate. This research provided valuable insights into the little-understood ecology of bacterial communities inhabiting deteriorated surfaces, shedding light on the potential role of these microorganisms in the sustainable conservation of rock art.

The signature of the stones: pXRF studies on prehistoric axes from the Eastern Sahara

Prehistoric stone axes are common in the Sahara but not much attention has been paid to them in recent research. Necked axes, also “haches à gorge” or “Darfur axes”, are a remarkable form of axes, which are characterised by a groove and a round or mushroom shaped neck. This rather peculiar type is widespread throughout the Sahara and can be linked with different pastoral groups of the 5th to 3rd/2nd millennia BCE. The distribution of these axes between the Nile Valley and Mali raises questions of trade and transport. In this regard the raw material used for the manufacture of these axes is of special interest. Visual rock determination of necked axes from the eastern Sahara, especially from the Wadi Howar and Laqiya regions in northern Sudan, indicates igneous rocks, mainly diabase, as raw material. As macroscopic raw material determination of archaeological objects can be difficult due to ancient surface treatment and taphonomic processes, a non-destructive elemental analysis approach was performed. pXRF analysis carried out on 62 pieces from the eastern Sahara for the first time allowed to further distinguish different rock groups based on their chemical composition. Comparison between pXRF measurements on the natural and fresh surfaces was made to address the question of taphonomic influence. A look for potential raw material sources for the production of the necked axes found in northern Sudan indicate a regional provenance of the raw material to be probable.

Stone-working and the earliest steel in Iberia: Scientific analyses and experimental replications of final bronze age stelae and tools

The south-western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age (FBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) have long been the centre of archaeological interest. These monuments show representations of human and animal figures, objects such as weapons, ornaments and chariots. Moreover, they provide insights into prehistoric stone working and sculpting techniques. On the downside, petrological studies of the rocks and consequent reflections on suitable tools are still the exception. Due to the lack of analysis and technological studies, this research will put emphasis on a multidisciplinary approach involving petrographic and metallurgic analyses, complemented by experimental archaeology.Firstly, an accurate lithological determination of stelae from Capilla (Spain) has been established with petrographic methods. According to the results, two slabs for replications of stelae were obtained from the identified mono-mineral quartz-sandstone (“quartzite”) outcrop. The experiment involved the trial of chisels made from all expedient materials that were available in the FBA-EIA by a professional stonemason. Considering that such extremely hard rocks require robust tools for carving, a long ignored iron chisel from the FBA site of Rocha do Vigio (Portugal) was studied with metallography and exposed heterogeneous, however surprisingly high-carbon steel. The analysed rocks are amongst the hardest that can be used for sculpting, and in the course of the experiment, bronze and lithic tools could be discarded. The only tool that showed an effect was the replication of the steel chisel from Rocha do Vigio with a hardened edge. The distinct work traces were compared to the original monuments. We hypothesize that the production of carbon steel as well as its hardening were possibly already known at the FBA-EIA transition in Iberia. Hence, only the access to iron technology allowed for the making of stelae from the lithotypes that were frequently used in the Zújar basin around the municipality of Capilla.

The potent urban prehistory of an ancient megalith: the Kempock Stone, Gourock, Scotland

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the modern biography of a prehistoric stone of uncertain provenance, the megalith known as the Kempock Stone or Granny Kempock that has stood in the Clydeside town of Gourock for at least several hundred years. Rather than fous on a specific prehistoric period of creation and installation, or speculate upon its original function, this account explores the numerous stories that have accumulated around the stone over the past two centuries, revealing its composite biography. In addition, the paper also identifies the plethora of practices that have focused upon the stone over the years. In adopting an urban prehistory that concentrates upon surviving prehistoric places, sites and things that survive in urban places, we investigate how these narratives and practices significntly contribute to the rich heritage of this monolith. In contending that a better understanding of the social benefits of monoliths in urban places is long overdue, we also exemplify the contemporary value such sites play in consolidating local identities, enriching heritage and hosting a wealth of shared cultural practices.

The symbol carving process as a mnemonic manipulator of ‘deep’ genealogy in Early Medieval Scotland

ABSTRACTScotland’s corpus of Early Medieval carved stone monuments is a rich dataset for explorations of cultural connections, power and ideology. This article explores how meaning and significance might be interpreted from the reuse of prehistoric stone monuments in the Pictish period via close examination of the materiality, landscape and transformation processes of one case study from Nether Corskie, Aberdeenshire. Technologies of transformation of the existing stone are considered and contextualized as evidence of contemporary concerns and manipulations of concepts and memories of genealogy, ancestry and place.

The results of the excavations at the prehistoric stone mound in Drinovci with a special focus on gold finds

U radu se donose rezultati zaštitnoga arheološkog istraživanja prapovijesne kamene gomile u Drinovcima (općina Grude, Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina). Iskopavanjima je dokumentirano ukupno pet grobova koji se mogu smjestiti unutar dva vremenska horizonta – prapovijesni (grobovi 1, 2 i 5) i srednjovjekovni (grobovi 3 i 4). Grob 1, iako devastiran, jedini je sadržavao nalaze. Riječ je o vitici izrađenoj od dvostruke – tzv. beskonačne, spiralno namotane zlatne žice, s tim kako je u neposrednoj blizini pronađen još jedan primjerak istih tipoloških obilježja koji je deformiran. Riječ je o, za sada, najstarijim poznatim te objavljenim zlatnim nalazima s prostora Bosne i Hercegovine. Najbolje analogije zlatnim predmetima iz Drinovaca pronalazimo u srednjem i početnim etapama kasnoga brončanog doba širega srednjoeuropskog prostora. Riječ je o predmetima sa širokim arealom rasprostiranja koji svjedoče o uključenosti prostora promatrane kulturne regije, odnosno lokalnih elita u tada već aktivnu supraregionalnu mrežu razmjene i komunikacije. Nadalje, istraživanjem su na prostoru između grobova prikupljeni i keramički ulomci prapovijesne fakture koji su mahom lišeni užih prepoznatljivih tipoloških elemenata. Prostor istraživane gomile je i kasnije, u vremenu kasnoga srednjeg vijeka, korišten kao mjesto pokopavanja, što je dosta dobro dokumentirana, no nažalost još uvijek slabo istražena praksa kulturne regije.

In Roofs, Walls and Towers

This article deals with prehistoric stone objects called ‘thunderstones,’ which in the Middle Ages through modern times wereoften placed at the border points of houses and farm buildings (e.g., roofs, chimneys, walls, thresholds), as well as in town walls and other defence walls. It should be assumed that they were used as a magical means to protect areas considered to be controlled by humans (orbis interior) from threats posed by the outside world (orbis exterior). The clearly marked repetition of the same types of places in which these prehistoric stone objects were deposited (in areas places inhabited and used by humans) in many European regions indicates that this was a chronologically and territorially widespread phenomenon.

Prehistoric Stone Disks from Entrances and Cemeteries of North-Eastern Adriatic Hillforts

The paper presents a group of four, approximately 0.5m large, stone disks from entrances or cemeteries of two protohistoric hillforts of north-eastern Adriatic. The disks, having a sparse chronology with the exception of one dated to the Middle Bronze Age, show flat and plain surfaces or covered with sub-circular depressions. One disk shows two larger cup-marks at the centre of both faces. They are interpreted as ritual artefacts based on the association with sacred settlement locations and comparisons with similar coeval stones found mainly close to citadel entrances, burials and thresholds in the Aegean area and Anatolia.

The “Third Way” to stone tool interpretation—— Prehistoric stone tools of Eastern Africa: a guide

The “Third Way” to stone tool interpretation—— Prehistoric stone tools of Eastern Africa: a guide

Chasing Mirages: Seeking Standardization among Prehistoric Stone Tools

ABSTRACT This paper asks why we expect to find standardization among prehistoric stone tools. It argues this expectation results from early archaeologists’ experience living in industrialized societies, a wild mismatch with the world their Pleistocene forebears inhabited. It further argues that in searching for evidence of lithic standardization, archaeologists must be alert for “mirages,” things that can create the illusion of standardization. Pre-industrial lithic standardization seems most likely to have emerged from attaching stone tools to handles (“hafting”), and from using stone tools as “passive lithic social media.”

Tracing Raw Material Sources of Prehistoric Stone Artefacts by Non-Invasive Techniques: The Case of the Early Bronze Age (3rd Mill. BCE) Site of Vathy, Astypalaia, Greece

Recent findings of archaeological research in the Vathy gulf area, Astypalaia Island, indicate its continuous habitation since prehistoric times, most importantly in the transitional period from the Final Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (late 4th/early 3rd millennium BC). The evaluation of the prehistoric stone artefacts from Vathy using non-invasive analytical methods (Near Infrared Spectroscopy—NIR), in combination with the mineral-petrographic characterization of the main lithological formations of the island, is expected to provide important information about raw material procurement and possible exchange networks. The geological study of the island combined with the analytical methods applied to the archaeological artefacts and the geological samples led to the identification of both local and allogenic materials. The possible locations of raw material sources were established and the origin of allogenic materials was estimated. The stone artefacts made of local geo-materials consist mainly of calcitic sandstone, shale, marl, and limestone/marble, comprising the largest part of the lithological formations of the island, as well as pumice and volcanic rocks of varying chemical composition. By means of a portable microscope and NIR spectroscopy, we were further able to identify allogenic geo-materials including chalcedony, mica schist, bauxite and meta-bauxite, steatite, and paragonite. Based on the mineralogical and petrographic characterization of the stone artefacts, a first attempt is made to evaluate the possible raw material sources and to identify potential intra-island modes of stone exploitation.

Прошлое, сохраненное в камне. О необычном оружии Средневековья и раннего Нового времени

The article discusses a group of medieval items whose differences are manifested in the structural use of a chronologically much older component — an axe, most often Neolithic. Their execution with a view to combat use should be considered doubtful. The executioner’s sword (Richtschwert) from Reutlingen (Germany), dated to the first half of the 16th century (Heimatmuseum Reutlingen), is worth to be mentioned. Other finds of military character also indicate the reuse of prehistoric stone products (finds fom Khlepen’, Smolensk region, Russia, the Waal River near Nijmegen, Netherlands, Gdańsk, Poland). The most famous artefact in the category of objects under consideration is the so-called hammer St. Martin, stored at the Catharijneconventin Museum in Utrecht, the Netherlands. The stone axe comes from the Late Bronze Age (around 1000 BC), while the silver binding of the haft was created around 1300. Formal and — probably — functional (ceremonial) kinship is connected with the hammer of St. Martin with two Neolithic “axes” kept in the collection of the Hermitage in Saint Petersburg. The final form of these items was given at the beginning of the 18th century. Adapting the discussed objects to new realities inevitably entailed attributing new content and applications to them, reflecting the current mental and worldview horizon of people manifested itself in magical-religious (syncretic) thinking.

Diachronic forager mobility: untangling the Stone Age movement patterns at the sites Norje Sunnansund, Skateholm and Västerbjers through strontium isotope ratio analysis by laser ablation

Strontium isotope ratios in human teeth from the three Swedish prehistoric Stone Age hunter-fisher-gathering societies Norje Sunnansund (Maglemose), Skateholm (Ertebølle) and Västerbjers (Pitted Ware Culture) were analysed with laser ablation to produce data on both individual movement patterns and societal mobility trends. The analyses of teeth from both Skateholm and Västerbjers displayed homogeneous ratios and corresponding mobility patterns, while the data from Norje Sunnansund showed larger variances with heterogenous strontium ratios and varied inter-individual mobility patterns. Correlation with the bioavailable baseline suggests that the size of the geographical areas, where human strontium ratios could have originated, was roughly comparable for all three sites. The teeth measurements were reflected within a 50-km radius of the surrounding landscape and the 25–75% data quartile matched with distances between 3 and 30 km from the sites, suggesting limited mobility ranges among aquatically dependent foragers from southernmost Sweden. By applying ethnographic analogies and site-specific contextual inferences, the results suggest that mobility ranges at Norje Sunnansund were likely not delimited by neighbouring group territories. This changed over time and an increasing territorialisation of the landscape may have influenced movement patterns and caused restrictions to the foraging activities at both Skateholm and Västerbjers.

Geochemical fingerprinting of Pleistocene stone tools from the Tràng An Landscape Complex, Ninh Bình Province, Vietnam.

Raw material analyses of prehistoric stone tool assemblages can reveal insight into mobility and exchange patterns in hunter-gatherer populations by reconstructing the circulation of stone throughout ancient landscapes. In Pleistocene Southeast Asia, stone tools are generally thought to have been fashioned from easily accessible local raw materials. However, despite the consistent presence of stone tools made of igneous raw material at prehistoric sites throughout the Tràng An Landscape Complex in northern Vietnam, there are no sources of igneous raw material in the immediate vicinity. This paper presents the results of geochemical sourcing analysis of late Pleistocene igneous stone tools from Tràng An: the first analysis of its type in mainland Southeast Asia. The results shed light on mobility and raw material provisioning strategies in Pleistocene mainland Southeast Asian hunter-gatherer populations and raise questions surrounding the relationship between technological organization, raw material, and expediency in Southeast Asian stone tool assemblages.

Prediction of Tourism Demand in Liuzhou Region Based on Machine Learning

Liuzhou is a rich tourism city in China. It is well known for its ethnic and prehistoric culture, folk songs, rare stones, and urban landscape. The demand of tourism in Liuzhou city is increasing day by day. Therefore, a system is needed to accurately predict the increasing demand of tourism in Liuzhou city. For this reason, based on the examination of historical visitor data in natural sites especially in Liuzhou city, this research employs an important machine learning and deep learning approach. The purpose of this study is to identify the consumption patterns and improve prediction, prejudgment, and preparation abilities by incorporating them into an intelligent tourism service platform, preventing visitors from travelling at inconvenient times and providing appropriate suggestions to scenic site managers. In this paper, the Sparse Principal Component Analysis-Long-Short-Term Memory (SPCA-LSTM) model has been updated to the Sparse Principal Component Analysis Convolutional Neural Network Long-Short-Term Memory (SPCA-CNNLSTM) model to accurately predict the tourist traffic during the holidays. Convolutional and pooling layers are added to the network topology to extract the local characteristics of the input data. The data of passenger traffic and influencing factors of Liuzhou scenic area from the months of Sept. 2015 to Nov. 2019 were used as the data set for the experiments. A hybrid-forecasting model is also proposed in the paper, which first removes noise from international crude oil data using compression-aware denoising preprocessing and then combines compression-aware denoising with machine learning using artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector regression (SVR). The experimental result shows that the SPCA-CNNLSTM model predicts better values than the SPCA-LSTM model.

Into the light: The effect of UV light on flint tool surfaces, residues and adhesives

Functional studies of prehistoric stone tools are often hindered by the surface preservation of the artefacts. Archaeological residues and use-wear can differ from their experimentally reproduced counterparts to an extent that their identification is not possible by simple comparison. An understanding of how stone tools and residues change over time is thus essential for a better view of past human technology. In open-air site contexts, UV light is the first degradation agent to impact lithic tools before their burial. Even though UV light has been mentioned as an alteration process and its effects on certain mineral and organic materials are known from other scientific fields, it has never been thoroughly studied in archaeology. This study provides a synthesis of the effect of UV light on organic materials and presents the results of the first controlled experiment ever carried out in archaeology to investigate the impact of UV light on flint tools and adhesives.

Nova istraživanja lokaliteta brončanog i željeznog doba na području Zenice

The paper present results of the investigations on the prehistoric sites in the vicinity of the city of Zenica conducted during 2018 and 2019. Based on the cooperation between the Austrian Archaeological Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and City Museum of Zenica we applied geophysical prospection, air-borne laser scanning and excavations in order to get a better understanding of the Bronze and Iron Age developments in this specific part of the central Bosnia along the Bosna River. This research is emebeded within the project “Visualizing the unknown Balkans, supported by the Innovation Fond of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.Apart from previously known and to smaller extent excavated hillfort Kopilo, our work also focused on the sites situated on the ridge above Gradišće in the northern part of the Zenica Basin. What appears to be indicative of this micro-region are high attitudes (600-900 m a.s.l.) of the identified Bronze and Iron Ages settlements in comparison to the situation in the neighboring valleys and basins of the central Bosnia. Such position provided mutual visual contact between the sites and an excellent control of the entry and exit from the Zenica Basin. Our work also brought evidences of prehistoric stone mounds on the ridge above Gradišče. The numerous archeological finds indicatate the importance and a long continuity of the hillforts such as Kopilo that obviuolsy lasted unti the advanced La Téne Period.