Prehistoric Period Research Articles

Study on the prehistoric decorated spindle whorls in Haidai region of China

Spindle whorls are a kind of spinning tools of crucially important in prehistoric period. Haidai region is one of the main historical and cultural areas of prehistoric China, and had a relatively developed textile handicraft production, where a large number of spindle whorls were unearthed, including many decorated ones. In order to make clear the uses of the decorated spindle whorls and the meanings of the patterns on them, the data of prehistoric decorated spindle whorls unearthed in archaeological sites of the period from Beixin Culture to Yueshi Culture in Haidai region of China were collected and analyzed, and the morphological data (dimension and shapes) of them were compared with that of undecorated ones. The patterns on the decorated spindle whorls were analyzed and classified, and the characteristics of the patterns in different cultural periods were studied, and based on this, the purpose of making decorated spindle whorls and the function and meanings of the patterns were discussed. The results showed that the range of morphological data of the decorated spindle whorls in Haidai region is consistent with that of undecorated ones belonging to the same period and unearthed in the same site, while compared with undecorated spindle whorls, decorated ones are more affected by regional culture and thus show different features from the ones unearthed in other archaeological sites belonging to the same cultural period. It is concluded that the most basic function of the decorated spindle whorls should be as practical tools for normal spinning production, and the patterns on them should have multiple meanings such as practical, decorative, distinctive and symbolic. The study of decorated spindle whorls can help us understand the prehistoric regional culture in Haidai region.

A cross-regional examination of camelid herding practices in Peru from 900 BCE to 1450 CE: Insights from stable isotopes in camelid bone collagen and fiber.

The economic, socio-political, and cultural significance of camelids in the Andean region is well-recognized, yet an understanding of their management evolution over pre-historical periods remains limited. This study aims to fill this gap by conducting the first cross-regional assessment of camelid pastoralism in Peru from 900 BCE to 1470 CE, using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions from the bone collagen and fibers of 577archaeological camelids across 21 sites. This research investigates the spatio-temporal shifts in camelid dietary habits, focusing on how the rise of intensive agriculture may have influenced change and led to the evolution of distinct roles for camelids in coastal versus non-coastal Andean economies. Our analysis indicates an increase in δ13C values over time on the coast, suggesting a shift towards maize-based camelid diets. Conversely, δ13C values decrease over time in highland environments, suggesting camelids consumed relatively more wild C3 forage and/or cultivated crops such as tubers. The study also reveals a significant positive relationship between latitude and δ15N values, suggesting increasing environmental aridity enriches δ15N in bone collagen. After controlling for this latitudinal effect, we observe a rise in δ15N values in both coastal and non-coastal camelids, suggesting that in later periods camelids may have been foddered in agricultural fields that were enriched with guano or dung fertilizer used to intensify production. Importantly, this research uncovers a distinct dietary divergence between coastal and inland camelids. The observed divergence in diets suggests contrasting socio-economic uses of camelids, where coastal camelids were predominantly involved in ceremonial and political activities, while those in non-coastal areas were crucial to the subsistence economy.

Genetic diversity of North African populations in the 17q21 genomic region.

The demographic history of human populations in North Africa has been characterized by complex migration processes that have determined the current genetic structure of these populations. We examined the autosomal markers of eight sampled populations in northern Africa (Tunisia and Libya) to explore their genetic structure and to place them in a global context. We genotyped a set of 30 autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) extending 9.5Mb and encompassing the 17q21 inversion region. Our data include 403 individuals from Tunisia and Libya. To put our populations in the global context, we analyzed our data in comparison with other populations, including those of the 1000 Genomes Project. To evaluate the data, we conducted genetic diversity, principal component, STRUCTURE, and haplotype analyses. The analysis of genetic composition revealed the genetic heterogeneity of North African populations. The principal component and STRUCTURE analyses converged and revealed the intermediate position of North Africans between Europeans and Asians. Haplotypic analysis demonstrated that the normal (H1) and inverted (H2) polymorphisms in the chromosome 17q21 region occur in North Africa at frequencies similar to those found in European and Southwest Asian populations. The results highlight the complex demographic history of North Africa, reflecting the influence of genetic flow from Europe and the Near East that dates to the prehistoric period. These gene flows added to demographic factors (inbreeding, endogamy), natural factors (topography, Sahara), and cultural factors that play a role in the emergence of the diverse and heterogeneous genetic structures of North African populations. This study contributes to a better understanding of the complex structure of North African populations.

Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative EDXRF Analysis for Provenance Study of Archaeological Ceramics.

The most common scientific analysis of archaeological ceramics aims to determine the raw material source and/or production technology. Scientists and archaeologists widely use XRF-based techniques as a tool in a provenance study. After conducting XRF analysis, the results are often analyzed using multivariate analysis in addition to interpretation and conclusions. Various multivariate techniques have already been applied in archaeological ceramics provenance studies to reveal different raw material sources, identify imported pieces, or determine different production recipes. This study aims to evaluate the results of multivariate analysis in the provenance study of ceramics that belong to three cultures that settled in the same area during various prehistoric periods. Portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pEDXRF) was used to determine the elemental composition of the ceramic material. The ceramic material was prepared in two different ways. The ceramic body material was ground into powder, homogenized, and then pressed into tablets. After that, the same fragments are polished in suitable places. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed on the tablets and polished pieces. The results were subjected to both unsupervised and supervised multivariate analysis. Based on the results, it was concluded that qualitative analysis of the well-prepared shards' surface using EDXRF spectrometry could be utilized in provenance studies, even when the ceramic assemblages were made of similar raw materials.

FORMATION OF A PLURALISTIC SOCIETY IN KASARAGOD: A HISTORICAL STUDY

Kasaragod in the northern part of Kerala State has its own cultural background from ancient period onwards. The people of this area is still living there without considering social, religious and caste differences that may be started since the Pre-historic period. Like any other civilized society, the people of Kasaragod also very much imbibed by their traditional beliefs and ritual practices handed down from generation to generation.Politically, this region has been witnessed plenty of military conquests. The geographical features, early political conquests, religious migration and the commercial contacts paved the way for the development of a composite culture in Kasaragod. Because of the external contacts, new type of beliefs and ritual practices came into the life of the native people at Kasaragod. In the course of time, it became a meeting ground of different communities with mutual co-existence and thereby a multi-cultural society developed in the northern part of Malabar.The present study is an attempt to know the general features of Kasaragod and to discuss how a pluralistic society developed in the northernmost part of Kerala.

Spectroscopic Identification of Mineral Pigments in White Decorated Prehistoric Pottery from Bulgaria

In the prehistoric period on the Balkan Peninsula, the technology of white decoration underwent a drastic change. At the beginning of the Neolithic white pigment was applied as paint on a polished surface. At the end of the epoch, white paste was inlaid in incised channels on the surfaces of vessels. This study is focused on the identification of mineral pigments used for white decoration of Neolithic and Chalcolithic pottery from the territory of Bulgaria. The aim of this work is to answer the question of whether the composition of the white pigment varies according to the technique of decoration (paint and inlay). A set of 41 pottery fragments from 11 archaeological sites on the territory of Bulgaria was analyzed utilizing two spectroscopic techniques: laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Additionally, the experimental data from the LIBS were statistically treated with the multivariate technique, principal component analysis (PCA). The results from the spectral analysis indicated that the main constituent in the white decorated sherds is calcite in various combinations with carrier materials like quartz, feldspars, and metal oxides. The statistical analysis revealed that the primal constituent in the inlaid sherds is calcite while in the painted part, the carrier material is dominant. In some particular sherds, gypsum, hydroxylapatite, kaolinite, and aragonite were also detected.

The Effect of Cultural Factors on the Consumption of Consumable Insects: Evidence from Rural Southwestern Uganda

Consumable insects are an important part of human food systems and their consumption across diverse cultures dates back into the pre-historical period. This study assessed the effect of cultural factors on the consumption of consumable insects in the Kiruhura district of southwestern Uganda. The study employed a post-positivism research paradigm (mixed methodology) in a cross-sectional survey. The survey was conducted across 134 households in the Kiruhura district of South-western Uganda between January and June 2021 using a self-administered questionnaire and interview guide. Results show that member attitude and perceptions, cultural beliefs, and values were significant drivers of eating insects, particularly grasshoppers in the Kiruhura district. The findings of the study imply that the eating of insects in the area could be enhanced by educating and raising awareness about the importance of utilizing insects as a source of food. More program support that integrates rearing of insects within the household farming system could increase availability and sustainable use of seasonal consumable insects as nutritious food presents great implications for policies targeting dietary interventions.

New evidence reveals the earliest use of cinnabar in the western Mediterranean: The Neolithic settlement of La Marmotta (Lazio, Italy)

Numerous researchers point out the emergence of human symbolism is related to the evolution of the complexity of human cognition. Red mineral pigments have been used extensively, particularly with anatomically modern humans, for various purposes. However, the management and supply of these pigments during prehistoric periods remains poorly investigated. Still today, the limited application of physico-chemical analyses often leads to a simplistic attribution of these pigments as ochre. The studies of data from recent literature presented in our paper show a progressive introduction and exploitation of cinnabar ore, to achieve a red pigment, from the seventh millennium BC. In this panorama, the new data obtained from the analyses of samples of artefacts from La Marmotta (Italy) show a wide use of cinnabar in central Italy from the early Neolithic and attest to the earliest use of this ore in the western Mediterranean area.

중학교 역사 교과서의 선사시대 서술

This paper reviews problems and direction found in the depiction of prehistoric eras in the middle school history textbook, particularly focusing on current version (2015 Revised Curriculum). Firstly, it identifies issues pertaining to the depiction of prehistoric eras, including the lack of coverage, other associated problems, and the roles played by textbooks in addressing these concerns. The absence of description regarding prehistoric eras entails the omission or lack of coverage, including the neglect of the Neolithic Age in South Korea. Additional issues in the depiction include the failure to incorporate archaeological excavations and research findings over time, the presence of errors and inaccuracies in information delivery, and disjointed descriptions. Lastly, the role of the textbook is closely linked to its method of description. The current textbook's approach puts focus on conveying individual historical facts rather than prompting thinking through questioning. This method of description fosters a perception that prehistoric eras are disconnected from our modern lives. To address the description issues surrounding prehistoric eras in the current history textbook, it is crucial to expand the coverage of South Korea's prehistoric periods. However, even more importantly, greater involvement of experts is necessary without dissenting voices being marginalized. Such experts involvement would facilitate more organic reorganization of the descriptions, showing unique characteristics of Korea. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for collaboration among specialists, textbook writers, authorities, and government agencies to rediscover the purpose and direction lost in the portrayal of prehistoric eras in order to enable collective discussions and critical thinking about how these eras are relevant to our lives, and what to discuss and contemplate with regard to the prehistoric eras.

Sacred Trees in Hindu Temples of Theni District, Tamil Nadu: A Perspective of Ethnomedicinal uses and Conservation Study

Tamil Nadu reflects the rich heritage of Hindu temples and historical sites with a long legacy. People worship and revere trees in every temple with most devotion. The Reverence to the trees in temples is practiced across the world and is well established from pre-historic periods in India (Bharat). Sthala-vriksha (Sacred Tree) is the tree which is significant and unique in most of the temples in India. In the present study, ethnomedicinal survey of sacred trees was carried out in the Theni District of Tamil Nadu with the support of a standardized questionnaire. No detailed study has been conducted on sacred tree practices and its role in Theni district. Therefore, Ethnomedicinal uses and other related information about sacred trees occurring in the 18 temples of Theni district have been documented in the present study in the year 2023. The result has revealed the occurrence of 13 plant species in the 18 temples. Most of the temples are maintained by Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment department of Tamil Nadu Government while very few are maintained by local villagers. Aegle marmelos (L.) was the most frequently recorded sacred tree (n=5) in the present study. Species were accurately identified and authenticated, and specimens were preserved for further use. The study suggests certain recommendations for protecting the sacred trees maintained in the temples.

Alteration in Plant-Based Subsistence and Its Influencing Factors from Late Neolithic to Historical Periods in Hexi Corridor, Northwestern China: Archaeobotanical Evidence

The spatio-temporal evolution of human subsistence strategies and their driving force in prehistoric Eurasia has received increasing attention with the rapid development of archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and isotopic research in recent decades, while studies focusing on the historical periods are relatively absent. In the Hexi Corridor in northwestern China, which has served as a hub for trans-Eurasian exchange since the late prehistoric period, archaeobotanical data have been reported from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, as well as sites from the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220–420 BCE) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 BCE). However, no archaeobotanical study has been conducted at sites of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), a crucial period connecting prehistoric and historical eras. In this study, we identified 32475 plant remains, including 31,463 broomcorn millets, 233 foxtail millets, and 780 weeds, from the Shuangdun North Beacon Tower (SDNBT) site of the Han Dynasty at the western end of the Hexi Corridor, suggesting that millets played a prominent part in human subsistence strategies in the area during this period. In addition, sheep, chicken, dog, horse, and rodent remains were also collected at the site. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach, we detected a remarkable change in plant-based subsistence in the ancient Hexi Corridor. Specifically, the importance of millet crops, compared with other crops (especially barley and wheat), in plant-based subsistence declined from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age; it apparently improved during the Han and Sui-Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE), when agricultural empires controlled the area, and then declined again during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties (220–581 CE) and the Song-Yuan Dynasty (960–1368 CE), when nomadic regimes controlled the area. Climate change, trans-Eurasian exchanges, and geopolitical shifts influenced the diachronic change in plant-based subsistence from the Late Neolithic to the historical periods in the Hexi Corridor.

Games in Ancient India -Indus Valley to Keeladi Excavations

This article makes sense of that games have stayed a decent energy for outside and indoor exercises as uncovered through the archaeological proof in the pre-history period. Presence of antiquated Indian human advancement comparable to the Egypt, Sumer, and later with Greek and Roman developments was uncovered with the three significant unearthings done in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal in Pakistan and northern piece of India. Prehistorian found genomic, phonetic and social similitudes of this Indus-Valley development with the human progress that prospered in the southernmost piece of India viewed as around Fell, Alagankulam, Mangudi, Adichanallur, Athirambakkam and a lot more archaeological destinations. The thought process of the article is to brings up a few additional likenesses with the curios found, games like dice, hopscotches and gamesmen related specifically, in the Keeladiunearthings with the unearthings done in Indus Valley and others all over the planet. Over the course of more than a century, various Indus-Valley excavations at archaeological sites yielded a variety of gamekeepers. Likewise, Keeladi, Alagankulam, Mangudi, unearthings done in this decade present various kinds of gamesmen too. Among the different relics found in Indus-Saraswati unearthings and different unearthings done all over the planet, this paper thinks about this gamesman or counters utilized for different prepackaged games and demonstrate that Keeladipaleontologist translated it as a circle utilized for a game played by young ladies rather than game counters of tabletop games.

The Ancient Metal Miners of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli, Western India

Abstract India is dotted with myriads of ancient metal mines or old workings in almost all the states, some of which have great antiquity (>4,000 yrs) and reaching considerable depth (upto 260 m). These stand as testimony to the mining skill of our ancestors, especially in the absence of mining tools. Several of these old metal mines, when explored by modern methods have yielded sizable deposits e.g. Hutti, Bhukia (gold), Rajpura-Dariba (multi-metal), Agucha (lead-zinc-silver), Agnigundala (lead-copper), Khetri (copper), etc. A few ancient Indian treatises describe the processes of metal extraction from the ores but records are scanty on the methods of mining and mining communities. Most experts consider that, the history of mining in India is obscured in the mist of antiquity and opine that ‘we lack the knowledge of old miners of India, as to who they were, from where they came or what was their fate’. The trailblazers though did not leave direct records nevertheless the opportunity is not closed to reconstruct missing pages related to ancient metal miners in the history of mining in India. An attempt has been made in this paper to bring out details of these miners based on comprehensive study and analysis of archaeological, geological, ancient metallurgical, historical, etymological and modern age data in conjunction with locals in the field, especially on those who were active in mining in border areas of present Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan in western India. It resulted in establishing the people of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli localities as expert miners, who were responsible for opening and operating a large number of mines in the region viz. Ambaji, Bhukia, Delwara, Khandia, Zawar, etc. Archaeological evidences and radiocarbon dates attest to a Chalcolithic to pre-historical period of some of these old mines. Nomenclature of some gold bearing rivers and gold mining localities in the country displaying Vedic gold names speaks for their antiquity. Mauryans (321-185 BC) accelerated metal mining in their empire, which was followed by other dynasties till Rajputs who were assisted by tribal Bhils. The knowhow of ancient metal miners of Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli seems to have descended from Mahabharata and Harappan tradition of Gujarat (3950-900 BC) and Ahar-Banas (3600-1800 BC) culture of Rajasthan. During Mughal invasions many miners and metal workers had migrated to remote Himalayan areas (present Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) or Hindu kingdoms (present Maharashtra, Odisha) where they adopted nomenclature of their place of origin (Vadnagar, Delwara and Mandli) to their new settlements. Some of these experts took-up mining profession while others developed expertise as blacksmiths/ whitesmiths or even agriculturists. Zinc coins of Kangra (14th Century AD) kings seem to have produced by these migrating metal experts who knew the technique of zinc distillation from ore of Zawar mines, the people of which are considered as first to smelt Industrial zinc in the world.

Stable population structure in Europe since the Iron Age, despite high mobility.

Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000-3000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed from the historical period onward (3000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia and France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. At least 7% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring geography. We show that, under standard population genetics models with local panmixia, the observed level of dispersal would lead to a collapse of population structure. Persistent population structure thus suggests a lower effective migration rate than indicated by the observed dispersal. We hypothesize that this phenomenon can be explained by extensive transient dispersal arising from drastically improved transportation networks and the Roman Empire's mobilization of people for trade, labor, and military. This work highlights the utility of ancient DNA in elucidating finer scale human population dynamics in recent history.

Palaeoseismological assessment for a seismic gap located very close to the epicentre of the 30 October 2020 Samos Earthquake (M6.9), western Anatolia, Turkey

AbstractThe Tuzla Fault (TF), considered one of the most important seismic sources in İzmir province, is defined as a strike–slip fault with N10E–N60E striking between Gaziemir and Doğanbey districts. A 50-km-long fault consists of three segments which are, from north to south Çatalca, Orhanlı, and Doğanbey segments. Recent studies claim that the part of the TF extending to Kuşadası Bay is also in a kinematic relationship with the Samos Fault that caused an earthquake on 30 October 2020 (Mw = 6.9). In this study, in order to analyse the historical behaviour of the fault, three trench-based palaeoseismology studies across the fault scarp were conducted on three geometric segments of the TF. Palaeoseismology findings show that seven historic/prehistoric earthquakes were generated by TF. According to Oxcal distribution using the Bayesian methods, the time of the events lie between 46.2 ± 6.1 and 1.6 ± 0.3 ka. When the events are compared with the historical earthquakes, the last event is correlated with the earthquakes of 47 AD and/or 177/178 AD on the Doğanbey segment. Moreover, the other events can be attributed to the late Pleistocene–Holocene earthquakes that are prehistorical periods. Our results provide a recurrence interval of an earthquake along the TF to between 0.7 and 4.3 ka for the Holocene period. The elapsed time since the most recent surface faulting earthquake on the TF is 1844 years. It is suggested that it is predicted that TF has the potential to produce destructive earthquakes in the near future, especially in Orhanlı and Çatalca segments which may be considered as a seismic gap.

Prehistoric salt production: Technological approach in ceramic studies

Numerous studies have been made on salt production in the European Iron Age, especially through broken low-fired clay artefacts known as “briquetage”. The vessels used in stoves are called salt moulds or salt containers. They serve both as crystallizer and mould for the salt obtained from concentrated brine. For the origin of salt production, archaeological evidences in Europe indicate that salt exploitation was intensified from the 5th millennium BC by using salt moulds in ceramic material. In this paper, we will present two studies conducted on “chaîne opératoire” of salt moulds making from two production sites, one in North-Eastern Bulgaria (Solnitstata, Provadia, c. 4700–4450 BCE), the other in West-Central France causewayed enclosures (c. 3400–2900 BCE). In both cases, the contexts in which these salt exploitations arose testify to an increase in social tensions.By focusing on the technical choices adopted in the manufacture and the use of these particular pots, we will see that for a same function several technical solutions are possible. However, we will attempt to define a general framework of technical choices and patterns observed in these pots which are often fragmented and rarely identified as salt moulds on archaeological sites except on production sites. This pottery is also excellent evidence for the development of specialised salt extraction throughout Europe since the late prehistoric period.

Female figurines in Sudan from the Neolithic to Meroitic period (4600 BC to 350 AD): A review of their chronological and typological development

Clay female figurines recovered from central and northern Sudan suggest there are cultural similarities between the Neolithic (5000-2800 BC) and Meroitic periods (400 BC-AD 350). Female figurines were recovered from several Meroitic sites, including from the elite cemeteries in el-Bagrawwaya west, the domestic strata in the royal city of Meroe, the Meroitic settlement in Karanog at lower Nubia, and at el-Muweis south of the Meroitic Town. Here, I argue that female forms in the Meroitic period, like some of the Neolithic samples, and their continuation in the archaeological record, show the social importance of females across the cultural history of ancient Sudan. The paper describes the figurines and uses a comparative method to study and reassess the Meroitic female figurines according to their similarities with other samples from the Neolithic and prehistoric periods.

EARLY EAST ROMAN PERIOD STONE WORKS FROM KONYA - SARAYÖNÜ

Sarayönü district, one of the important settlements of the Mountainous Phrygia region, is located within the borders of Konya province. The district, which hosted many civilisations from the Prehistoric Period, was the scene of important settlements especially in the Early Eastern Roman Period. For example, this is understood from the archaeo-architectural and liturgical remains in Beşgöz neighbourhood of Sarayönü district, where there are rich settlements belonging to the Early Eastern Roman Period. In this study, we carried out for the identification of the area, a fragment of a cross architectural block, a column cap, a column and a balustrade plate, two column bases were seen. These archaeological stone remains were firstly catalogued. Afterwards, they were grouped according to their functions and historical suggestions were made. Because from these existing architectural remains that we evaluated throughout the study, it is concluded that the Beşgöz neighbourhood had a church structure belonging to the V-VI. centuries AD.

Percolation of the Past in the Middle Ages? Case-Study of the Necropolis Ravna–Slog near Knjaževac

The things surviving into the present from the previous epochs have under- gone the processes of selection and fragmentation.Therefore, the elements from the past that penetrate into another time are fragmented and represent a (material) memory of the previous practices, events, lifestyles, or an unknown that easily raises mystical ideas about the other worlds. Gavin Lucas describes this phenomenon of past penetrating into the present as percolation (lat. percolatio). The term is derived from chemistry, where it denotes filtration or drainage, i. e. the passage of fluid through a filter and separation of substances
 The archaeological perspective is capable to deal with the coexistence of sets of material culture from various times in thepresent. On the other hand, the polychrony of archaeological assemblages has often been purified and separated through scientific practices – as if the present is not always filled with the past. The interpretation of the mutual relations among the past times andtheir usage/ meaning in the new contexts is not susceptible to simple solutions. It is hard to explain why a certain event or an objectdisappears from the memory and usage, while others endure into the present or occur again.
 The paper analyses the Early Medieval funerary contexts from the necropolis Ravna–Slog in which the artefacts originating from the Roman or prehistoric periods are registered along with the Medieval ones. The similar phenomenon is registered in the case ofthe Avar-Period graves. The mixed contexts from Ravna are interpreted as the consequence of the need to construct the link to the past, with the aim to legitimize the presence in the new territory.
 

Georgian Traces in the History of the Chuvash

The paper deals with the Transcaucasian prehistoric period in the history of the ancestors of the Chuvash people. Goals. The study aims to identify and analyse the sources and literature on the topic relating to events of the 7th to 1st centuries BC. Materials and methods. The work employs a complex approach to the examination of the material, which made it possible to analyse the sources and the thoughts of predecessors consistently and systematically. The study focuses on works of historians, ethnographers and linguists about the ethnic groups that previously inhabited and now inhabit the areas to the south of the Greater Caucasus. The sources that proved important include the works by such historians as Herodotus (5th century BC), Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd c. BC), Pseudo-Orpheus (4th c. AD), Priscus Panionensis (5th c.), Menander Protector and Stephanus of Byzantium (both 6th c.). The paper also makes use of some pronouncements by such remarkable researchers as Andrey Golovnev, Sergey Arutyunov, Alikber Alikberov, Nicholas Berdzenishvili, Vera Budanova, Murtazali Gadzhiev, and David Muskhelishvili. Results. Impartial investigation shows that the ethnonym of the Chuvash has undergone a lengthy course of transformation through history in the form of Savir (Saspir/Sapir, Savar, Sabir) → Suvar (Suvas, Suvan) → Suvash → T’šăvaš (Chuvash). As far back as the 7th century BC, to the southeast of Colchis a large confederation of tribes headed by the Saspirs came into being. The study reveals and confirms traces in the pre-history of the distant ancestors of the Chuvash that are shared with the peoples of Georgia. In the period under examination, the historical forerunners of the Chuvash lived in a territory between Media and Colchis, between the Medes and the Colchians. In the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD, they were recorded to inhabit the Chorokh River valley. Alongside historical events, the publication traces ethnographic parallels with the ancient Georgian peoples and some shared elements of vocabulary.