Prehistoric Monuments Research Articles

The Solar and Lunar Alignment of Rock Art on Scottish Prehistoric Monuments

The Solar and Lunar Alignment of Rock Art on Scottish Prehistoric Monuments

The result of complex researches on the prehistoric monuments of South-West Georgia

The result of complex researches on the prehistoric monuments of South-West Georgia

The Rough Tor Effect: early prehistoric monuments focusing on significant tors in Cornwall

ABSTRACT A ceremonial monument cannot function without those people who carry knowledge of its metaphysics and practice, and it cannot continue into the future without instruction in its meaning. In this paper, we attempt to recover the meaning of Neolithic tradition as enacted on Bodmin Moor in Cornwall where prominent hills can be viewed at a great distance. It has long been recognised that hundreds of prehistoric monuments in Cornwall in some way ‘pay tribute’ to Rough Tor, a phenomenon known as the Rough Tor Effect. We discuss the Rough Tor Effect with particular reference to viewframes, granite structures made by positioning slabs through which Rough Tor – and a second significant tor on Stowe’s Hill – could be viewed. Through the form and orientation of viewframes we deduce some of the possible values communicated, and the community benefits conferred, through this mechanism of guiding perception of Rough Tor and Stowe’s Hill. We also note how Rough Tor was not only subject to distant observation. Direct interventions, especially cairn building, took place on and between Rough Tor’s three tors. We propose a tentative explanation of the reasoning behind these interventions.

The largest prehistoric mound in Europe is the Bronze-Age Hill of Udine (Italy) and legend linked its origin to Attila the Hun

Prehistoric monuments often constitute evident landmarks and sometimes, after falling into disuse, fascinated local people enough to stimulate speculations about their origin over time. According to legend, the Hill of Udine (NE Italy) was built by Attila the Hun’s soldiers, but its origin (natural or anthropogenic) has been debated until now. Our research analyzed five new 40-m long stratigraphic cores, investigating for the first time the total thickness of the hill and compared the data with the available archaeological information. Moreover, we considered other hills and mounds in northern Italy and other European regions where folklore traditions relate their origin to Attila. The geoarchaeological and ethnographic data prove that the Hill of Udine is a Bronze Age anthropogenic mound erected between 1400 and 1150 BCE and that, later, folklore has transformed the ancestral memory of its origin into legend. By measuring 30 m in height and over 400,000 m3 in volume, the flat-topped hill is the largest prehistoric mound in Europe. This discovery reveals unprecedented skills in earth construction and confirms significant anthropogenic modifications of the environment during Bronze Age.

Assessing the Perceptibility of Prehistoric Monuments on their Landscape. An Exploratory Approach Using Agent-Based Modelling

The perceptibility of a prehistoric monument (the property of being perceptible from its surrounding landscape) can be quite difficult to analyse by means of traditional static models. Such difficulty lies in the fact that perceptibility depends upon many other factors beyond simple topographical position, such as size, colour, contrast with the surroundings or even the specific circumstances of the audience, many such circumstances being of an immaterial nature. In this paper, we explore the potential use of Agent-Based Modelling for the analysis of archaeological perceptibility.

Alterity, Otherness and Nomad Geometries: New Trajectories for the Interpretation of Late Neolithic Monuments

This paper focuses upon alterity and how we can more fully embrace intimations of otherness in our dealings with prehistoric monuments. Taking as its inspiration recent attempts to explain such structures, and the landscapes of which they were part, it makes two arguments. First, that while ethnographic analogies offer a vital point of departure for thinking through the possibilities raised by alterity and otherness, we may well have been overlooking a rich set of data—derived from careful excavation and painstaking metrical analyses—that has been sitting in front of us for a very long time. Second, despite over a decade of sustained critical debate, we seem remarkably timid when it comes to seeing where these data might take us. Through the lens of two Late Neolithic stone circles from southern Britain (one big, one small), research into measurement units and alignments is allied with recent excavation and survey data in order to explore ideas of hybridity, nomad-geometry and the arresting/manipulation of time and motion. Placing these glimpses of alterity front and centre, they are then used to establish new starting-points for the interpretation of these structures.

Józef Żurowski’s (1892–1936) Activity as the Conservator of Archeological Artefacts in the Lesser Poland Region

The article aims to present the multifaceted activity of Józef Żurowski (1892–1936), an archaeologist and conservator of prehistoric artefacts in Małopolska. The study relies on extensive archival material and Żurowski’s numerous publications. In the years 1920–1936, he was the conservator of the Krakow region and later the West Małopolska region, acting successively on behalf of the State Group of Prehistoric Monuments Conservators and the State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw. Żurowski’s most outstanding achievements include carrying out the first excavations in the banded flint mine in Krzemionki, conducting research on multicultural sites in Złota, supervising the digging of the monumental Krakus Mound, discovering and interpreting the first burials of the Bell Beaker culture in Poland, as well as examining many early medieval cemeteries. As a conservator, he not only inventoried and excavated many archaeological sites – such as numerous strongholds, barrows, and the caves of the Ojców Jura – but also ensured their protection and preservation. Józef Żurowski died prematurely at 45, yet he is one of the most distinguished Polish archaeologists of the Second Polish Republic.

The crux of astronomical alignment in Neolithic Malta: Using 3D simulation to produce new data

Like many prehistoric monuments, the Neolithic Temples of Malta have been the subject of astronomical studies, aimed at identifying possible alignments with cosmological events. The orientations of several sites have been suggested as evidence of an interest in the movement of the sun, moon, and stars, and of the importance of certain days such as the equinoxes and solstices. However, while individual sites may seem to align to specific events, a wider study into patterns of orientation is needed to determine whether these are the result of human action or random chance. In this paper, alignments at extant sites are investigated through 3D simulation, providing new data and statistical evidence for (and against) previously identified alignments. The methodology proposed uses Raycasting in Unity3D to identify the accuracy of orientations throughout the Maltese Neolithic (3700-2400 BC) at 23 temples sites. The orientation is analysed in relation to plausible astronomical events, as suggested by material evidence. The data produced shows possible patterns of alignment, rejecting commonly accepted targets such as the sun, in favour of a cautious acceptance of an alignment with the constellation of Crux. This shift in focus alters heliocentric interpretations of Maltese temple culture, while also supporting a wider landscape cosmology. This study demonstrates the use of 3D simulations as a tool for investigation of archaeological queries. The research not only provides a new methodology for the automatic calculation of alignment patterns, but also establishes how 3D simulation can create new data which can impact current archaeological theories.

Interdisciplinary Investigations of the Neolithic Circular Ditch Enclosure of Velm (Lower Austria)

Middle Neolithic circular enclosures, known as Kreisgrabenanlage (KGA), are the oldest known monumental sites in Central Europe, dating roughly to 4850–4600/4500 BC. These large prehistoric monuments are mainly discovered by aerial archaeology and have been investigated by geophysical prospection and archaeological excavations since the 1960s. The site of Velm (Lower Austria) was discovered by aerial photographs in 2001. Due to its unusual location on a flat gravel plateau, the enclosure has become the object of intensive interdisciplinary research in recent years. In 2016, two motorized ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were conducted, resulting in a detailed three-dimensional dataset visualizing the circular ditches, palisades and dwellings of an adjacent settlement. The high contrast between the gravel sediments and the humic earthen backfill of the ditches, palisades and individual postholes resulted in a highly detailed visualization of the Middle Neolithic monument. Based on this survey, selected structures were investigated by targeted archaeological excavations to evaluate the GPR results and to take samples for radiocarbon dating. This paper presents a synopsis of all the methods used. An integrated interpretation of aerial photo information, magnetometry and GPR is conducted, and it is shown to what extent these could be verified by the targeted archaeological excavation. By a detailed analysis of all applied archaeological prospection methods, it is now possible to interpret the monument in its entirety and confirm its dating to the Middle Neolithic Lengyel cultural complex.

Against Method

Against Method

Using Portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (PXRF) to Explore the Origins of the Sarsen Megaliths at Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument that is considered a British cultural icon and one of the most famous landmarks in Europe. The origin of the sarsen megaliths that comprise Stonehenge have interested archaeologists for decades. What can spectroscopic techniques, such as portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (PXRF), reveal about the sarsen megaliths and where they originated? David Nash, a professor of physical geography at the University of Brighton in Brighton, United Kingdom, is exploring this question. We recently spoke with Professor Nash about his team’s discovery and what it means for the future of archaeology.

INTEGRATED 3D SURVEY FOR THE DOCUMENTATION AND VISUALIZATION OF A ROCK-CUT UNDERGROUND BUILT HERITAGE

Abstract. The research presented here is part of an on-going research focused on the 3D documentation of rock-cut Underground Built Heritage with a complex morphology and characterised by narrow spaces, the Hypogeum of Calaforno (province of Ragusa, Sicily). It is one of the most interesting prehistoric monuments in Sicily in terms of size and unique rock-cut architecture. Various digital techniques have been tested over the years on the site, to represent its spatiality, such as Laser Scanner and Structure from Motion. The proposed methodological approach for the knowledge and the documentation of this archaeological site is based on an interdisciplinary approach involving archaeological and engineering disciplines. This paper focuses on the use of expeditious techniques such as iMMS (indoor Mobile Mapping Systems) based on SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) and on the comparison of different surveying equipment in order to verify data quality and accuracy, as well as the inherent advantages of using one technology over another in relation to the characteristics of the site. Through the global verification of TLS and SLAM model reliability, we maintain that such research can contribute to enriching the protocols surrounding the archaeological investigation of sites characterized by complex morphology, irregular surfaces, narrow spaces, specific chromatic features, scarce or total lack of lighting, and physical obstacles.

Landscapes of the Past. Interactions with Prehistoric Monuments and Early Medieval Conversion Practices Between Sardinia and the British Isles

In some peripheral parts of Europe, prehistoric menhirs, dolmens, henges, and other megalithic constructions made such strong marks on the terrain that they became integral to the landscape. In the Middle Ages, such monuments were often used as landmarks or boundary markers and, indeed, ended up in coeval descriptions of the territory. In some instances, prehistoric monuments were Christianized to promote the conversion of “pagan” populations; in other cases, they stimulated the creation of stone artifacts - stelae, crosses, standing stones - that might have been used as well as instruments of conversion. The investigation in this article revolves around analysis of the landscape of Sardinia, medieval descriptions of Sardinia’s terrain, and examination of some early medieval stone artifacts there. Parallels found in similar contexts in the British Isles are also considered.

Archaeology and legend: investigating Stonehenge

Stonehenge is one of the world’s most famous prehistoric monuments, built 4,500–5,000 years ago during the Neolithic in a time long before written history. The recent dramatic discovery of a dismantled stone circle near the sources of some of Stonehenge’s stones in southwest Wales raises the fascinating possibility that an ancient story about Stonehenge’s origin, written down 900 years ago and subsequently dismissed as pure invention, might contain a grain of truth. This article explores the pros and cons of comparing the legend with the archaeological evidence.

An investigation of an Aberdeenshire ritual landscape: a site of human sacrifice associated with Venus

ABSTRACT A group of intervisible prehistoric monuments delineate a ritual landscape of 102 kilometres near Hatton of Fintray, Aberdeenshire. They act as back and foresights on solar and lunar horizon rising and setting extremes when viewed one from another. The identities of the local deities, syncretised as parish saints, an ethnographic analogy with pre-Christian Irish chieftains and an oral tradition that one of the monuments, the Gouk Stone (Old English for ‘cuckoo’), marks the location where a ‘general’ of that name was slain, support the hypothesis that local chieftains, titled after the bird and ‘married’ to the local goddess of sovereignty that personified Venus, were tied to the stone and ritually sacrificed. This occurred on the culturally significant day of Samhain at eight-year intervals from the Bronze Age until the late Iron Age. The interval coincided with the extreme evening setting of Venus at Samhain. In support of this hypothesis the stone acted as a horizon foresight for Venus setting extremes which occurred within a few days of Samhain and as a back sight with sunset behind a stone circle on Samhain. Place-names indicate the location remained an assembly/judicial site until the Medieval Period.

A Calanais myth and an alignment of the east stone-row with both the rising of the Pleiades and crossovers of Venus at sunrise on the summer solstices

ABSTRACT A myth asserts that at sunrise on the summer solstice ‘something’ came to the Calanais Stones’ central ring heralded by the cuckoo’s call. This paper investigates which of the three celestial objects easily visible at sunrise, the Sun, Moon and Venus, might be referred to. The stones have no obvious orientation with the Sun and, while a ‘window’ of the midsummer full-moons could be seen over the stone ring, complex lunar orbits preclude any precise alignments including the lunar standstill positions. Several widespread European goddesses of fertility and sovereignty were associated with both Venus and the cuckoo, astronomically symbolised by the Pleiades in northern Europe. The east -row of the Calanais Stones is aligned with crossover events of Venus. Three crossover events occurred during the period of the east row construction suggested by radiocarbon dating. The azimuth of the rising Pleiades coincided with the Venus crossover of 1677 and 1674 BC. The ‘something’ was ‘bright, shining, holy’ in Brittonic, gwen, while Gwener is the planet Venus. The appearance of the Sun and Venus at sunrise on the summer solstice might represent a divine wedding. This is believed to be the first European prehistoric monument demonstrated to be purposely aligned with Venus.

Using scale modelling to assess the prehistoric acoustics of Stonehenge

With social rituals usually involving sound, an archaeological understanding of a site requires the acoustics to be assessed. This paper demonstrates how this can be done with acoustic scale models. Scale modelling is an established method in architectural acoustics, but it has not previously been applied to prehistoric monuments. The Stonehenge model described here allows the acoustics in the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age to be quantified and the effects on musical sounds and speech to be inferred. It was found that the stone reflections create an average mid-frequency reverberation time of (0.64 ± 0.03) seconds and an amplification of (4.3 ± 0.9) dB for speech. The model has a more accurate representation of the prehistoric geometry, giving a reverberation time that is significantly greater than that measured in the current ruin and a full-size concrete replica at Maryhill, USA. The amplification could have aided speech communication and the reverberation improved musical sounds. How Stonehenge was used is much debated, but these results show that sounds were improved within the circle compared to outside. Stonehenge had different configurations, especially in terms of the positions of the bluestones. However, this made inaudible changes to the acoustics, suggesting sound is unlikely to be the underlying motivation for the various arrangements.

Late Neolithic Stenildgård Grave: Re-Excavated, Re-Analysed and Re-Interpreted

Occasionally, it becomes possible to re-excavate and reanalyse prehistoric monuments. Within the geographical area managed by Vesthimmerlands Museum, this happened in the case of the Late Neolithic Stenildgård grave on the western periphery of the town of Aars, Northern Danmark. The grave was excavated for the first time at the early 1930s and re-excavated in 2015 in connection with the construction of a ring road around the southern parts of Aars. In 2015, a series of state-of-the-art scientific analyses were conducted in relation to this grave.Following a detailed presentation of the original publication and later interpretations, this article presents the results of the new excavation and scientific analyses. The new results include identifi cation of the human bones, the development of the stratigraphy, strontium isotope analysis, pollen analysis, macro-fossil analysis, and the analysis of pitch.Since the 1930s, the Stenildgård grave has been considered a burial, which, to a great extent, deviated from usual practice showing one of the earliest examples of cremation in prehistoric Denmark. Furthermore, the recent investigation revealed that the grave was equipped with a surrounding wooden structure and possibly influenced by West European Bell Beaker Cultures. Also, the grave seems to form part of an extensive Late Neolithic burial and settlement system, where complex rituals were carried out.

Ceramic hinterlands: establishing the catchment areas of early Anglo-Saxon cremation cemeteries

ABSTRACT The cremation cemeteries of early Anglo-Saxon England have long been recognized as central places, serving discrete territories or catchment areas. Their prominent locations, size and proximity to prehistoric and Roman routeways and monuments have been viewed as indicators of their centrality. Yet, little is known about the extent of these hinterlands or where one catchment area ended, and another began. Focusing on urns from two cremation cemeteries in North Lincolnshire and pottery from 80 non-funerary find-spots, this study places cremation cemeteries within a ceramic landscape. Using thin-section petrology to identify domestic and funerary pottery with a common source, direct links are drawn between cemeteries and settlements and the catchment areas of cemeteries revealed. The methodology developed is not specific to the study of Anglo-Saxon cremation practice, rather it is applicable across time and regions, facilitating investigations into the hinterlands of cremation cemeteries throughout Europe and the wider world.

Пам’ятки археології села Ульвівок і його околиць у дослідженнях львівських вчених

The old village of Ulvivok, located above the Bug River in Sokal district, Lviv region, is extremely rich with archaeological sites. Relief, favourable for living, fertile soils, large river have contributed to appearing of human settlements on this area since ancient times. This fact is witnessed by finds of numerous archaeological artifacts near Ulvivok and discovery of significant archaeological sites – cemeteries and settlements, which have an interesting history of research since the late XIX century and till nowadays, associated with many famous Lviv scientists. An important role in the preservation and study of local archaeological finds was played by Dzieduszycki Museum. The first references to finds from Ulvivok and the surrounding villages – Horodylovychi, Stargorod, Skomorokhy and Telyazh – are found at the works of local historian B. Sokalski and geologist A. Lomnitcki, published in 1899. J. Nykorovych – the owner of the village and amateur archaeologist contributed noticeably preservation and research of sites during XIX – beginning of XX century. The first extensive exploration in Ulvivok in 1923 was conducted by archaeologist and local historian, guardian of the prehistoric monuments of Lviv district B. Janusz, who discovered a tomb of Globular Amphorae culture and part of the burials of the most famous archaeological sites near Ulvivok – inhumation cemetery from the end of Bronze Age of “Ulvivok-Rovantsi type”. The same cemetery was investigated in 1931 by archaeologist T. Sulimirski, who published the results of excavations. Local archaeological finds were studied by famous Ukrainian archaeologist J. Pasternak, J. Bryk, K. Żurowski, J. Dąmbrowski, I. Sveshnikov, L. Krushelnytska. Nowadays, the exploration work was conducted by N. Wojceschuk, surveys in Ulvivok, Horodylovychi, Stargorod and excavation of Early Iron Age site were carried out by D. Pavliv. At least 14 archaeological sites (8 settlements and 6 cemeteries) and about 100 individual finds have been found on the territory of the village and surrounding area. This territory on the western part of Ukraine is extremely rich with archaeological sites of almost all epochs. It is witnessed by the great historical importance of this region and requires continuation of professional archaeological examinations and protective actions for the preservation of archaeological heritage. Key words: Ulvivok, archaeological site, Lviv scientists, Globular Amphorae culture, burial complex of Ulvivok-Rovantsi type.