Prehistoric Exploitation Research Articles

Editorial

The earliest research on the siliceous raw materials in the territory of Poland dates back to the first years after World War I. A patriarch of these studies was an archaeologist Stefan Krukowski (1890–1982). Together with Jan Samsonowicz (1888–1959), then a young geologist, they undertook a grand survey focused on flint deposits and prehistoric exploitation sites. The year 2022 brings a centennial celebration of their most prominent discovery: Krzemionki (Fig. 1). Exactly on July 19th, 1922, J. Samsonowicz realized that the unusual landscape of Krzemionki is a remnant of a prehistoric flint mine; he later wrote about this: “It came out that the mentioned pits are prehistoric mining shafts, filled with debris and soil” (Samsonowicz 1923: 22, translation by the Editors).

Prehistoric exploitation of minerals resources. Experimentation and use-wear analysis of grooved stone tools from Grotta della Monaca (Calabria, Italy)

The Calabria region of Southern Italy is rich in mineralisation. Unfortunately, no consistent data are available about mineral exploitation in the later prehistoric periods. The Grotta della Monaca mine in Calabria is a prehistoric site that is characterised by the mineralisation of iron ores (such as goethite) and copper carbonates (malachite and azurite). For this reason, the site provides an exceptional opportunity to study a prehistoric mine in which several minerals were exploited during the late Neolithic and early Chalcolithic. In this study, we present the results of an experimental protocol and use-wear analysis conducted using macro-lithic tool replicas to extract mineral resources. The experimental test aimed at reconstructing the function of grooved stone tools found at Grotta della Monaca. Use-wear observation, through a combined low- and high-power approach on experimental and archaeological objects, allowed us to define different extraction techniques and methods of mineral treatments. These data enhance our understanding and reconstruction of the chaîne opératoires, economic choices, and cultural aspects that characterised prehistoric miners in Southern Italy.

The history of chicken and other bird exploitation in Thailand: Preliminary analysis of bird remains from four archaeological sites

AbstractThe origin of the domestication of chicken Gallus gallus domesticus is still a subject of debate. It principally originates from the red junglefowl G. gallus, which is distributed throughout Southeast Asia and South China. However, the prehistoric exploitation of chicken and red junglefowl in Southeast Asia has remained unclear due to a small number of samples for bone analysis. In this study, we analysed bird remains from four archaeological sites in Thailand: Ban Hua Ud (4,000–3,000 bp), Long Long Rak (1,900–1,600 bp), Ban Non Wat (3,750–1,500 bp), and Keed Kin (fifth–11th Century A.D.). Bones from pheasants/fowls (Phasianidae), storks (Ciconiidae), cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae), crows (Corvidae), and passerines (Passeriformes) were found. A small number of stork bones were found at three lowland sites, with none found at Long Long Rak. Cormorant bones were dominant at Ban Hua Ud but were only found at that site. Pheasant/fowl bones were found at all sites except Ban Hua Ud and dominated the number of identified specimens, suggesting that they were the most commonly used bird, at least after the Iron Age. Morphological bone identification criteria for the 24 Phasianidae species in Thailand have not been established; ancient DNA analysis is required to differentiate chicken/red junglefowl bone from other indigenous pheasants/fowls. It is obvious that mitochondrial DNA remained unchanged in the early stages of the domestication process. Further studies combining ancient DNA and morphological analyses are required to judge whether all of the candidate chicken bones are indeed from red junglefowl or chicken. Although these results are regionally and temporally restricted, they give important quantitative information on bird exploitation during the Neolithic and early historic Dvaravadi periods in Thailand.

The Georgian Caucasus and its resources: the exploitation of the Mount Chikiani uplands during the metal ages

Recent surveys around Mount Chikiani in the Georgian Caucasus have revealed intensive prehistoric exploitation of high-altitude obsidian resources, far beyond the scale previously documented.

Geochemical Variability in the Paredón Obsidian Source, Puebla and Hidalgo, Mexico: A Preliminary Assessment and Inter‐Laboratory Comparison

Chemical characterization reveals intra‐source variation in obsidian from the Paredón source area in Puebla and Hidalgo, Mexico. Two chemical sub‐sources of obsidian from Paredón are spatially discrete and cannot be distinguished by visual characteristics. To facilitate future investigations of the prehistoric exploitation of these sub‐sources, an inter‐laboratory comparison of elemental concentrations is presented based on neutron activation analysis and several XRF instruments.

Surgencias salobres y producción de sal en la Vega Salada (Prado del Rey y El Bosque, Cádiz) de la Prehistoria a época medieval. Una aproximación geoarqueológica

La Vega Salada se localiza en el noreste de la provincia de Cádiz, entre las campiñas altas y los relieves calcáreos del piedemonte de las sierras de Grazalema y Ronda, en los actuales Términos Municipales de Prado del Rey y El Bosque. Se caracteriza por ser una comarca con importantes niveles triásicos con un sustrato geológico de yesos y margas del Keuper que permiten el afloramiento de aguas salobres, mediante numerosas surgencias y manantiales. Nuestros trabajos geoarqueológicos han tenido éxito en la confirmación por primera vez de la explotación de estos recursos en época romana con el establecimiento de salinas, siendo aún desconocida la materialidad de los indicios de su beneficio en época prehistórica, así como las explotaciones de época andalusí y bajomedieval, que aparecen reseñadas en las fuentes documentales.

Discovery of obsidian mines on Mount Chikiani in the Lesser Caucasus of Georgia

The volcanic Javaketi Range (Lesser Caucasus, Georgia) has recently aroused the interest of both geologists and archaeologists on account of its rich environmental and geological history, the prehistoric exploitation of its raw materials and the discovery of archaeological sites ranging from the Palaeolithic to the Historical Ages (Gogadze 1980; Kikodze 1983). In 2012 and 2014, two systematic surveys were conducted on Mount Chikiani (Koyundağ) with the aim of defining the areas from which obsidian was obtained during different prehistoric periods, and to characterise its sources (Biagi & Gratuze 2016). A longer season of archaeological prospection was carried out in 2016. Among the many important finds was the discovery of a large number of obsidian mining pits along the northern and north-eastern lower slopes of the volcano (Figure 1), as well as several obsidian workshops. During the 2016 season, research focused on the 2417m-high trachyrhyolitic dome—a source of high-quality obsidian—emerging from the plain around 300m north-east of Lake Paravani.

A lead-isotope database of copper ores from the Southeastern Alps: A tool for the investigation of prehistoric copper metallurgy

The Southeastern Alps were an important source of copper metal in prehistory, at least from the Eneolithic and through the Bronze Age, as documented by the abundant and substantial presence of smelting slags. Evidence of mining activity is scarce, because of limited ad hoc investigation and because of the subsequent systematic erasing by post-Medieval exploitation. Moreover, until recently the profusion of archaeometallurgical and archaeological investigations focusing on the prehistoric exploitation of Northern Alpine, Central European, and Balkan ore sources has somehow obscured the early role of the Italian Southern Alps as a major copper producing area. The recent advances in the systematic characterization of the copper ores in the Southeastern Alps (including Alto Adige, Trentino, Veneto, and nearby regions) by lead isotope analysis, supported by mineralogical and geochemical interpretation, offer now the appropriate tools to re-evaluate the extent of prehistoric mining and the local patterns of ore exploitation. The developed database is a powerful tool to identify the metal derived from local production. It is suggested that (1) based on the abundance and chronological distribution of smelting slags evidence, two major periods of mining exploitation took place, the first in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC and the second during the Late Bronze Age; and (2) based on the discrimination of copper sources and the available analyses, most of the metal circulating in Northern Italy and in the greater Po Valley region was actually produced from Southern Alpine ores.

The Monegros-type chert: Petrographic characterization and prehistoric use

In recent years, allusions to exploitation of a so-called “Monegros-type” chert have been a commonplace in archaeological literature, mostly in Iberia but also in southern France. It has been also a routine that these references did not include a true petrographic characterization, being mere de visu descriptions of those products.This work presents, for the first time, macro and microscopic characterizations of some of the most outstanding chert outcrops located in the Middle Ebro Basin. There, tertiary limestone sediments that form the top part of the flat plateau reliefs hold great quantities of chert nodules. The noteworthy erosive processes that have affected this area have facilitated the gathering of those cherts: they are easy to find either in their original location, still embedded in the limestone layers, or in secondary position along the enormous glacis that connect those flat reliefs to the river terraces. Two main flint varieties have been defined: Monegros and Evaporitic of Ebro. Both were originated in continental lacustrine environments. They are fine-grained and offer excellent knapping possibilities; hence its common use since prehistoric times to recent semi-industrial exploitations related to 18th century gunflint productions.This paper offers a preliminary study that will be developed in a forthcoming PhD dissertation, but we also include examples of its prehistoric exploitation in the Ebro Basin and abroad.

The marine chert from Las Lezas (Biel, Zaragoza) and its prehistoric exploitation.

The upper Arba de Biel Basin hosts an interesting archaeological ensemble composed by five sites that were repeatedly occupied by human groups from the Upper Magdalenian until the Chalcolithic (between ca. 15,000 and 4,500 years calBP).This work presents the first results of the petrographic study of the local chert (Las Lezas), as well as a dissection of the different strategies concerning its gathering, management and exploitation in every occupation period. The implications derived from the different contribution of local and exogenous raw materials are exposed in the final section of our work.

Interpreting long-term use of raw materials in pottery production: A holistic perspective

Pottery-related resources can be exploited over a long period of time for many different reasons. For example, raw material collection can be influenced by ecological, economic or functional criteria, as much as social and symbolic phenomena. The scope of these different theoretical perspectives is discussed in order to reach integrated and symmetrical interpretations of raw material acquisition. This approach is exemplified using a case study of the potter communities inhabiting the Santa Ponsa area (Mallorca, Spain) during the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age. The identification of the raw materials used is explained briefly, based on petrologic, palaeontological and chemical characterisation of the archaeological ceramics and the clays from the area surrounding the site. Additionally, the reasons behind the prehistoric exploitation of certain kinds of clay over time are discussed, by considering the theoretical models of ceramic ecology, functionalism and a combination of landscape archaeology and social theory of technology.

Impact of landscape changes on obsidian exploitation since the Palaeolithic in the central highland of Japan

We have reconstructed landscape changes at a known obsidian source area in the central highland, Japan, using well dated pollen and micro-charcoal records, in order to better understand the difference in obsidian procurement between gathering in the Palaeolithic period (>30–16 ka cal bp) and mining in the Jomon period (16–2.9 ka cal bp). The pollen record at the site shows that alpine vegetation, such as patches of Pinus pumila (dwarf Siberian pine) and alpine meadows with rocky areas surrounded the area during the period 30–17 ka cal bp. The reconstructed Palaeolithic landscape implies that there was a favourable situation for gathering obsidian on the ground surface in the area. Subsequently, growth of woodland started at 17 ka cal bp due to a rise of the tree line elevation corresponding to the deglacial warming. The pollen record at the site shows that mixed woodland consisting of Betula (birch) and boreal conifers covered the area during the period 17–11.2 ka cal bp, and dense mixed oak woodlands flourished during the period 11.2–2.9 ka cal bp. From 17 ka cal bp, local conditions were unfavourable for gathering obsidian, and this probably caused the Jomon people to develop obsidian mining. We can suggest that the landscape changes between the Palaeolithic and Jomon periods strongly influenced the prehistoric exploitation of obsidian in the area.

The prehistoric exploitation of salt in Europe

The article considers the nature and extent of salt production in prehistoric Europe, in the light of recent fieldwork. The biological needs of humans and animals are described, as this might have determined the extent to which ancient communities sought out salt if they did not have access to it locally. Three main zones of production, utilising solar evaporation, briquetage, and a technique involving wooden troughs, are described; deep mining seems only to have occurred in the Austrian Alps. Lastly consideration is given to the effects of salt production within and between communities, bearing in mind the widely expressed view that in prehistory richness in salt led to richness in other goods.

Crossing the Straits: prehistoric obsidian exploitation in the North Pacific Rim - Edited by Yaroslav V. Kusmin and Michael D. Glascock

Crossing the Straits: prehistoric obsidian exploitation in the North Pacific Rim - Edited by Yaroslav V. Kusmin and Michael D. Glascock

Procurement and Cultural Distribution of Obsidian in Northern New Zealand

This paper provides new insights into the prehistoric exploitation of obsidian in northern New Zealand. Most of the obsidian recovered from archaeological sites in this region originated from six or seven preferred sources (out of a total of 19). Cultural distributions can be delimited for the majority of these, and indicate that the primary use of raw material from some sources, where the local obsidian constitutes > 30–50 per cent of artefact assemblages, was restricted to relatively small areas. A significant proportion of the obsidian in these areas could have been procured by direct access, which may be reflected in a high percentage of artefacts with remnant cortex. Exploitation appears to have changed over time, from an early reliance on Mayor Island obsidian to greater use of alternative sources in the later period, pointing to the development of more complex distribution networks.

Boat-based foraging and discontinuous prehistoric red abalone exploitation along the California coast

Temporally and spatially discontinuous pulses of heavy prehistoric exploitation of red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) have been documented along the southern and central California coast. This article examines the very late (post-950cal BP) appearance of numerous red abalone processing sites on the Monterey Peninsula in central California. We test three prominent explanations offered for the sudden onset of red abalone processing sites: trophic cascades resulting from human predation on sea otters, logistical foraging by inland residents, and changes in sea surface temperature. A trophic cascade appears to have occurred but does not fully explain the nature or timing of the phenomenon in the region.We present an alternative explanation that argues that intensive procurement of red abalone emerged at a time when both population pressure and social complexity increased greatly in central California. We argue that a new exploitation strategy—diving from boats—was employed to exploit a much larger portion of the red abalone habitat. This strategy entailed logistical forays by divers who worked new patches in tandem with boaters, gathered large quantities in a single foray, and then field processed them in bulk on the shore before transporting the meat to coastal residences. This strategy provided an additional source of food, and both tradable dried meat and numerous large shells that could be manufactured into ornaments and traded as decorative accoutrements. We conclude our discussion with a consideration of the factors that created such a discontinuous record of red abalone exploitation along the California coast.

Spatial and Temporal Variability in Chert Exploitation on Santa Cruz Island, California

Chert outcrops on eastern Santa Cruz Island were of vital importance to the inhabitants of the Santa Barbara Channel region because of their comparatively limited availablity elsewhere on the California Channel Islands. Temporally diagnostic artifacts and radiocarbon dates from associated shell middens suggest that chert quarries were exploited throughout the Holocene. The importance of these quarries has been well documented in regard to microlith production as part of the shell bead industry during the late Holocene. However, relatively little is known about local chert tool manufacture and exchange in earlier times. Systematic documentation of 26 known chert quarries, and sampling at associated shell middens on eastern Santa Cruz Island has resulted in the identification of significant spatial variability in chert exploitation through time. Whereas chert quarrying during the middle Holocene appears to have been opportunistic and dispersed throughout the landscape, comparable activities during the late Holocene became increasingly circumscribed as microlith production was intensified. These trends in chert procurement are interpreted in the context of temporal changes in subsistence, tool manufacture, and residential mobility on the northern Channel Islands, and have broad implications for spatial and temporal patterning in prehistoric lithic exploitation.

A NOVEL APPROACH TO STUDIES OF PREHISTORIC EXPLOITATION OF STONE TOOL MATERIALS USING MATERIAL COMPOSITION, SURFACE MORPHOLOGY, MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES*

For a comprehensive understanding of material exploitation in prehistory, we applied advanced analytical methods to Japanese prehistoric stone tool materials. Compositions, surface morphologies, microstructures and mechanical properties of the primary lithic materials were analysed. As a result of the tests on actual Palaeolithic artefacts, preferential material selection was observed based on composition, structure and other physical properties of the materials. Homogeneous materials composed of a single type of mineral—α‐quartz—were intentionally selected for Palaeolithic tools regardless of the type of rock. These materials unexceptionally present higher hardness and strength. Moreover, materials composed of extremely fine crystal grains of ~0.1 µm in size with highest hardness and strength were selectively used for sharp‐edged blades. These results lead us to the conclusion that quantitative and objective analyses will give us precise information on prehistoric materials, which will enable us to make an analytical approach to the comprehension of prehistoric exploitation of stone materials. This could eventually complement the traditional interpretation of material exploitation based on conventional petrological classifications.

The Role of Small Islands in Marine Subsistence Strategies: Case Studies from the Caribbean

Caribbean archaeologists have tended to focus exclusively on the prehistory of the largest islands, perhaps because large islands are believed to provide the landmass necessary to support long-term population growth and cultural development. Yet, as research here and elsewhere, e.g., the Pacific, is showing, small islands provided access to resources and landscapes that were not always readily available on the larger islands. Small islands often have superior terrestrial and, especially, marine resources; isolated ritual spaces; and more easily defended locations; although they are susceptible to more rapid overexploitation. This paper examines in detail human needs with regard to island size, demonstrating that small islands were crucial in the development of pre-Columbian Caribbean societies. Four case studies are presented to illustrate that small islands often were preferred over large islands throughout the Caribbean archipelagoes. Finally, these studies show that the prehistoric exploitation and overexploitation of small islands can provide significant insights for establishing baselines that can be used for modern management and conservation efforts.

Paleoseismicity, Ecological Change, and Prehistoric Exploitation of Anadromous Fishes in the Salmon River Basin, Western Idaho, USA

By the middle Holocene, Native American groups developed semi-sedentary villages in the Columbia River basin of the Pacific Northwest. The economic basis for these villages is thought to have been predicated on the acquisition of bulk food resources, such as salmon and camas, for delayed consumption during the winter. In Idaho's lower Salmon River canyon, semi-sedentary pit house villages are absent until after 2000 14C yr BP. Floodplain geochronology shows channel incision and terrace formation occurred at ca. 2000 14C yr BP, caused by fluvial response to neotectonic displacement along a normal fault. The delayed appearance of pit house sites and other markers of the Winter Village Pattern in the canyon is argued to be directly related to neotectonically-induced changes in fluvial conditions after 2000 14C yr BP, which significantly improved aquatic habitats for anadromous fishes and led to the development of a predictable, productive salmon fishery.