Prehistoric Eurasia Research Articles

Early transhumance recorded by the microfossils of sheep coprolites in the Tongtian Cave, China

Being a crucial subsistence strategy for the steppe communities, transhumant pastoralism has played a pivotal role in facilitating early communication of East and West civilizations. However, despite its significance, there remains a paucity of research regarding how and when transhumant pastoralism emerged at the eastern end of the Eurasian Steppe. Situated at the crossroads of East-West exchanges, the Tongtian Cave site has yielded a diverse range of archaeological materials, including sheep bones, sheep coprolites, and the earliest remains of wheat and barley in China. In order to explore the herding strategies employed at the Tongtian Cave, the microfossil contents from site's stratigraphy and the sheep coprolites are investigated in this study. Analytic results reveal the presence of elm tree pollen and probably phytoliths within the coprolites, suggesting that the site once served as a spring pasture. Wheat remains recovered from the same stratum as the coprolites date the transhumant practice at the site as far back as ca. 4300 B.P., establishing the Tongtian Cave as not only the earliest pastoralist site in China but likely also in the eastern Eurasian Steppe. Overall, our studies of the Tongtian Cave materials provide crucial evidence that deepens our understandings of the timing and mechanism of the eastward expansion of transhumant pastoralism across prehistoric Eurasia. The methodological potential of pollen and fungal spore analyses in revealing the seasonality of ancient site use is also explored in this article.

Alteration in Plant-Based Subsistence and Its Influencing Factors from Late Neolithic to Historical Periods in Hexi Corridor, Northwestern China: Archaeobotanical Evidence

The spatio-temporal evolution of human subsistence strategies and their driving force in prehistoric Eurasia has received increasing attention with the rapid development of archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and isotopic research in recent decades, while studies focusing on the historical periods are relatively absent. In the Hexi Corridor in northwestern China, which has served as a hub for trans-Eurasian exchange since the late prehistoric period, archaeobotanical data have been reported from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, as well as sites from the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220–420 BCE) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 BCE). However, no archaeobotanical study has been conducted at sites of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), a crucial period connecting prehistoric and historical eras. In this study, we identified 32475 plant remains, including 31,463 broomcorn millets, 233 foxtail millets, and 780 weeds, from the Shuangdun North Beacon Tower (SDNBT) site of the Han Dynasty at the western end of the Hexi Corridor, suggesting that millets played a prominent part in human subsistence strategies in the area during this period. In addition, sheep, chicken, dog, horse, and rodent remains were also collected at the site. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach, we detected a remarkable change in plant-based subsistence in the ancient Hexi Corridor. Specifically, the importance of millet crops, compared with other crops (especially barley and wheat), in plant-based subsistence declined from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age; it apparently improved during the Han and Sui-Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE), when agricultural empires controlled the area, and then declined again during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties (220–581 CE) and the Song-Yuan Dynasty (960–1368 CE), when nomadic regimes controlled the area. Climate change, trans-Eurasian exchanges, and geopolitical shifts influenced the diachronic change in plant-based subsistence from the Late Neolithic to the historical periods in the Hexi Corridor.

Gender differences in millet consumption in arid Inner Asia during the Iron Age documented by stable isotopes: A case study from Shihuyao, Xinjiang

Western diffusion and indigenized utilization of China's prehistoric millet crops have recently attracted wide attention from scholars. Previous studies revealed the economic role of millet cereals in Eurasia, especially Inner Asia. However, in the process of indigenized utilization of millet cereals, the social role of millet, for example, its relationship with gender, social class as well as labor division in prehistoric Inner Asia is still lacking of systemic study. Twenty adult male and 17 adult female bones sampled from Early Iron Age Shihuyao cemetery provide opportunity to explore the millet consumption strategy between the gender in prehistoric Xinjiang, based on AMS radiocarbon dating and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic technology. Meanwhile, 469 previously published stable isotopic datasets of different genders from Bronze-Iron Age Inner Asia are collected systemically to explore jointly the relationship between millet consumption and social factors in prehistoric Inner Asia. Our results show that Shihuyao males consumed much more C4 crops (probably millet) than females significantly. Further analysis in Inner Asia indicates this differences of millet consumption between genders also occurred widely in the Early Iron Age other sites of Xinjiang, Southeast Central Asia, and Central Kazakhstan. Combined with archaeological evidences, it can be inferred that a few males who consume much more millet could have special social status, e.g., some males who consumed much more millet than females in Xinjiang (Central Kazakhstan) tend to be found in a lower (higher) social class cemetery. However, in broad Inner Asia, this millet consumption difference between genders during the Early Iron Age could be related with social labor divisions based on gender, i.e., in process of long-distance animal herding, dry provisions made from millet are carried for males' consumption. This study provides significant information towards elucidating the relationship between millet cereals utilization and social culture in prehistoric Eurasia.

Red and Black Paints on Prehistoric Pottery of the Southern Russian Far East: An Archaeometric Study

This paper considers the results of an examination of painted pottery from prehistoric sites of the Prmor’ye region (Southern Russian Far East) in the northwestern part of the Sea of Japan basin. Red-painted and black-painted ceramic wares occur here only in the remains of the Yankovskaya archaeological culture dated to the 1st mil. BCE. Red painting appears as a colored surface coating, and black painting is represented by very simple drawn patterns. Until recently painting decorations have not been intentionally studied. The objects of our investigation are a small series of red-painted and black-painted ceramic fragments originated from archaeological sites. The methods of optical microscopy, SEM-EDS, and Raman spectroscopy were applied to the study of research materials. As a result, the data on characteristics of texture and composition of red and black paints were obtained. Both were determined to be pre-firing paints. Red paint is a clayish substance mixed with natural ochre pigment containing the hematite coloring agent. Black paint is carbon-based. Black carbon and burnt bone are recognized as colorants. The presented materials are new evidence of pottery paint technologies in prehistoric Eurasia.

Water and soil management strategies and the introduction of wheat and barley to northern China: an isotopic analysis of cultivation on the Loess Plateau

ABSTRACTStudies of ‘food globalisation’ have traced the dispersal of cereals across prehistoric Eurasia. The degree to which these crops were accompanied by knowledge of soil and water preparation is less well known, however. The authors use stable isotope and archaeobotanical analyses to trace long-term trends in cultivation practices on the Loess Plateau (6000 BC–AD 1900). The results indicate that ancient farmers cultivated grains originating in South-west Asia and used distinct strategies for different species. Barley was integrated into pre-existing practices, while wheat was grown using novel soil and water management strategies. These distinct approaches suggest that the spread of prehistoric crops and knowledge about them varied by local context.

Spatiotemporal variation in human settlements and their interaction with living environments in Neolithic and Bronze Age China

It is evident that the origin, development, and expansion of agriculture and animal husbandry during the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods across Eurasia facilitated the increase of the world population and emergence of ancient civilizations, as well as altering human livelihoods, especially in East Asia. However, different areas of China have different histories in terms of the development of agriculture and of extensive human settlement during that period, and the spatial differences in human–environment interaction are not yet well understood. Here, we review up-to-date results of radiocarbon dating, archaeobotanical, and zooarchaeological analysis from Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in China, along with high-resolution paleoclimatic records, to explore the spatiotemporal variation of human settlement and its relationship to the development of agriculture and to climate change in different areas during the period 10,000–2200 BP. The results suggest that human settlement intensities in the northern East Asia Monsoon Region and south China were relatively low during 10,000–6500 BP, with a small peak during ∼8000–7500 BP, and evidently increased since ∼6500 BP, whereas farming groups began to settle intensively on the Tibetan Plateau and the inland arid region since ∼5200 BP and ∼4000 BP, respectively. The spatiotemporal variation in the intensification of human settlement in China during the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods was primarily induced by agricultural intensification and expansion across prehistoric Eurasia; climate change may have influenced the hydrothermal and vegetation conditions for crop cultivation and livestock production. The asynchronous intensive human settlements in different areas of China resulted in spatial differences in the impact of activities by human on the environments surrounding them during 10,000–2200 BP, shedding light on the evolution of the human–land relationship in China during the Neolithic and Bronze periods.

Manure for millet: Grain δ15N values as indicators of prehistoric cropping intensity of Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica

Broomcorn and foxtail millet are the only major domesticated plants indigenous to prehistoric Eurasia to rely on the C4photosynthetic pathway. Here we study the impact of animal manure (AM) on broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), grown in the Askov Long-Term Experiment, using unmanured soil and soil dressed with phosphorus plus potassium (PK) as reference treatments. Animal manure had a marked effect on yields and on the δ15N values of grains. For broomcorn millets grown on manured soil, the average δ15N value was 5.8‰. When grown on unmanured and PK-treated soils, the δ15N values were 0.4‰ and 0.2‰, respectively. For foxtail millet the δ15N values also differed between grains from unmanured (-1.0‰), PK (0.7‰) and manured (6.3‰) treatments. Thus, when compared to unmanured soil, the offset due to manure was 7.3‰ for Setaria and 5.3‰ for the two Panicum varieties. In accordance with previous studies on C3 crops, our study suggests that δ15N values in charred millet grains recovered from archaeological sites could provide a robust indicator of prehistoric manuring intensity.

Localized management of non-indigenous animal domesticates in Northwestern China during the Bronze Age

The movements of ancient crop and animal domesticates across prehistoric Eurasia are well-documented in the archaeological record. What is less well understood are the precise mechanisms that farmers and herders employed to incorporate newly introduced domesticates into their long-standing husbandry and culinary traditions. This paper presents stable isotope values (δ13C, δ15N) of humans, animals, and a small number of plants from the Hexi Corridor, a key region that facilitated the movement of ancient crops between Central and East Asia. The data show that the role of animal products in human diets was more significant than previously thought. In addition, the diets of domestic herbivores (sheep/goat, and cattle) suggest that these two groups of domesticates were managed in distinct ways in the two main ecozones of the Hexi Corridor: the drier Northwestern region and the wetter Southeastern region. Whereas sheep and goat diets are consistent with consumption of naturally available vegetation, cattle exhibit a higher input of C4 plants in places where these plants contributed little to the natural vegetation. This suggests that cattle consumed diets that were more influenced by human provisioning, and may therefore have been reared closer to the human settlements, than sheep and goats.

Provenance and distribution networks of the earliest bronze in the Maritime Territory (Primorye), Russian Far East

Metal artifacts from the Paleometal Epoch (ca. 1100 BC–400 AD) of the Primorye (Russian Far East) have shed new light on the introduction of the earliest bronzes into the Pacific coastal areas of prehistoric Eurasia. However, little is known about raw material circulation and the role of metal in the context of inter-regional exchange. This paper investigates 12 copper artifacts from major Paleometal settlements using alloy composition, trace elements, and lead isotopes to explore the metal sources and distribution networks. The results suggest that most objects are made of a copper-tin alloy, but some have arsenic as a significant minor element . Geologically, copper is unlikely to have come from local ore sources, but rather from the Liaoxi corridor and Liaodong Peninsula in Northeast China. This may indicate an inland route of metal trade across Northeast China or alternately, a coastal route via the northern Korean Peninsula. Archaeologically, the combined study of artifact typology and chemistry indicates two possible origins for the metal: the Upper Xiajiadian culture in Northeast China and Slab Grave culture in Mongolia/Transbaikal. Remarkably, the connection with Upper Xiajiadian communities parallels the transport route along which millet agriculture spread from Northeast China to the Primorye during the Neolithic.

Horses were not domesticated in Anatolia

Archaeology The domestication of the horse was one of the most consequential innovations in human history and led to profound changes in the economic, political, and social structures of prehistoric Eurasia. However, when, where, and how many times horses were domesticated remains an open question. Anatolia has been proposed as an early center of domestication because of the long history of exploitation of equids there. Using advanced paleogenomic methods, Guimaraes et al. tested this hypothesis on archaeological samples of equids from 14 sites from central Anatolia across a temporal span from about 8000 to 1000 BCE. They determined that the ancient wild horses of the region were never domesticated and identified the introduction of nonlocal and already domesticated horse lineages around 2000 BCE. Sci. Adv. 10.1126/sciadv.abb0030 (2020).

Carbon and nitrogen isotopic variability in foxtail millet (Setaria italica) with watering regime.

RationaleCarbonised plant remains are analysed for reconstruction of past climates and agricultural regimes. Several recent studies have used C4 plants to address related questions, and correlations between modern C4 plant δ13C values and rainfall have been found. The millets were important food crops in prehistoric Eurasia, yet little is known about causes of isotopic variation within millet species. Previous research has shown there to be significant isotopic variation between millet accessions. Here we compare isotope ratios from plants grown under different watering regimes. This allows for a consideration of whether or not Setaria italica is a good proxy for environmental reconstruction.MethodsWe compare stable isotope ratios of Setaria italica plants grown in a controlled environment chamber with different watering regimes. We compare the carbon isotope ratios of leaves and grains, and the nitrogen isotope ratios of grains, from 12 accessions of Setaria italica.ResultsWe find significant isotopic variability between watering regimes. Carbon isotope ratios are positively correlated with water availability, and on average vary by 1.9‰ and 1.7‰ for leaves and grains, respectively. Grain nitrogen isotope ratios also vary with watering regime; however, the highest isotope ratios are found with the 130‐mL watering regime.ConclusionsThe carbon isotope ratios of Setaria italica are strongly correlated with water availability. However, the correlation is the opposite to that seen in studies of C3 plants. The difference in isotopic ratio due to watering regime is comparable with that seen between different accessions; thus distinguishing between changing varieties of Setaria italica and changing climate is problematic. In terms of grain nitrogen isotope ratios, the highest δ15N values were not associated with the lowest watering regime. Again, δ15N variation is comparable with that which would be expected from an aridity effect or a manuring effect, and thus distinguishing between these factors is probably problematic.

Paleometal Epoch in the Primorye (south of the Far East of Russia)

ABSTRACTArchaeological investigations of Paleometal Epoch in the Primorye (south of the Far East of Russia) are generating insight for the introduction of metals into the Pacific coastal areas of prehistoric Eurasia. The chronological framework covers the turn of the 2nd −1st mil. BC to the beginning of 1st mil. AD. The temporal limits of bronze-bearing and iron-bearing cultural units of Primorye region overlap. The limited degree of local metal production and re-working during the Paleometal epoch still suggests progressive changes in the material culture of prehistoric populations of the southern Russian Far East.

Exploring the history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia from the perspectives of crop diffusion and consumption

The history of cultural exchange in prehistoric Eurasia (CEPE) has been widely investigated. Based on archaeological evidence, this process is thought to date back to at least the early Bronze Age, although details about timings and routes remain unclear. It is likely that CEPE promoted the spread and exchange of crops that originated in different parts of Eurasia; since these remains can be definitely identified and directly dated, they provide ideal research materials to explore the history of CEPE. In this paper, we review the available archaeobotanical evidence and direct radiocarbon dates for crop remains, alongside carbon isotopic data from human bones unearthed from prehistoric sites in Eurasia, in order to investigate the history of the spread of millet crops, and wheat and barley, that were first domesticated in the eastern and western parts of Eurasia during prehistoric times. In combination with other archaeological evidences, we discuss the history of CEPE. Our results suggest that wheat and barley were domesticated in western Asia around 10500 a BP, spread into Europe and western Central Asia before 8000 a BP, and reaching eastern Central Asia and northwestern China between 4500 and 4000 a BP. Data show that both broomcorn and foxtail millet were domesticated in eastern Asia before 7700 a BP, spread into eastern Central Asia between 4500 and 4000 a BP, and into western Asia and Europe prior to 3500 a BP. Wheat, barley, and millet crops were first utilized together in eastern Kazakhstan within Central Asia around 4400 a BP, the region where earliest CEPE is likely to have taken place. These crops were mixedly used mainly in eastern central Asia and northwest China between 4500 and 3500 a BP, and then across the Eurasia before 2200 a BP. The results of this study suggest that transcontinental CEPE might have been initiated during the fifth millennium, before intensifying during the Bronze Age to lay the foundations for the creation of the ancient Silk Road during the Han Dynasty (between 202BC and 220AD).

Intraspecific carbon and nitrogen isotopic variability in foxtail millet (Setaria italica).

Isotopic palaeodietary studies generally focus on bone collagen from human and/or animal remains. While plant remains are rarely analysed, it is known that plant isotope values can vary as a result of numerous factors, including soil conditions, the environment and type of plant. The millets were important food crops in prehistoric Eurasia, yet little is known about the isotopic differences within millet species. Here we compare the stable isotope ratios within and between Setaria italica plants grown in a controlled environment chamber. Using homogenised samples, we compare carbon isotope ratios of leaves and grains, and nitrogen isotope ratios of grains, from 29 accessions of Setaria italica. We find significant isotopic variability within single leaves and panicles, and between leaves and panicles within the same plant, which must be considered when undertaking plant isotope studies. We find that the leaves and grains from the different accessions have a ca 2‰ range in δ(13) C values, while the nitrogen isotope values in the grains have a ca 6‰ range. We also find an average offset of 0.9‰ between leaves and grains in their δ(13) C values. The variation found is large enough to have archaeological implications and within- and between-plant isotope variability should be considered in isotope studies. The range in δ(15) N values is particularly significant as it is larger than the typical values quoted for a trophic level enrichment, and as such may lead to erroneous interpretations of the amount of animal protein in human or animal diets. It is therefore necessary to account for the variability in plant stable isotope values during palaeodietary reconstructions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia

The earliest testimonies of the use of alcohol and drugs suggest that inebriation is a long-established habit, the origins of which can be traced back to prehistory. Traces highly suggestive of fermented beverages and remains of psychoactive plants have been recovered from archaeological sites throughout prehistoric Europe. This paper surveys the history of these substances from a cultural approach based on the contexts of consumption. A wide range of documents will be examined here (macrofossil remains of psychoactive plants, residues of fermented beverages, alkaloids in archaeological items and artistic depictions, among others). Considering that these sensory-altering products are mainly found in tombs and ceremonial places, they seem to be strongly connected to ritual usages. Far from being consumed for hedonistic purposes, it can therefore be argued that drug plants and alcoholic drinks had a sacred role among prehistoric societies.

Agriculturalists and pastoralists: Bronze Age economy of the Murghab alluvial fan, southern Central Asia

Archaeological investigations of pastoral economies often emphasize exchange relations with agricultural populations, though for Bronze Age Eurasia the notion of a ubiquitous ‘pastoral realm’ has masked various forms of mixed subsistence economies. In Central Asia, there are few attempts to specifically identify the domestic crops utilized by mobile pastoralists or what they may suggest about the role of agriculture in mobile pastoral production or subsistence strategies. This study reports the macrobotanical remains from two Late/Final Bronze Age (ca. 1950–1300 bc) mobile pastoralist habitation sites in the Murghab alluvial fan region of southern Turkmenistan. We compare our results with published macrobotanical data from contemporary agricultural settlements in the Murghab region, as well as with other sites in broader prehistoric Eurasia. We find that mobile pastoralists in the Murghab utilized some of the same domestic crops as their sedentary neighbors. While the data presented here do not preclude the possibility that mobile pastoralists may have practiced some low-investment cultivation (particularly of millet), we hypothesize an economic model that places mobile pastoralists in direct contact with nearby sedentary farming communities through exchange for pre-processed grains. These results highlight one of the possible strategies of mobile pastoral subsistence in Central Asia, and are a further step toward identifying the various degrees of agricultural involvement in the conceptually outdated pastoral realm of Eurasia.

Believing the ancients: quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia

This paper briefly examines two types of slavery in the first millennium Aegean, Carpatho-Balkan and Pontic regions – branded silver-mine slaves and blinded milk-processing slaves. The first is examined primarily in quantitative terms, to attach economically sensible order-of-magnitude figures to the trade in people. The second is examined qualitatively, to show how indigenous forms of dependence and subordination were caught up in the emergence of Graeco-Roman chattel slavery. In both cases I have taken the rather unusual step of trusting what the classical authors tell us they knew. Finally, a symbolic connection is made between shackles and torcs.

Believing the ancients: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia

This paper briefly examines two types of slavery in the first millennium Aegean, Carpatho-Balkan and Pontic regions – branded silver-mine slaves and blinded milk-processing slaves. The first is examined primarily in quantitative terms, to attach economically sensible order-of-magnitude figures to the trade in people. The second is examined qualitatively, to show how indigenous forms of dependence and subordination were caught up in the emergence of Graeco-Roman chattel slavery. In both cases I have taken the rather unusual step of trusting what the classical authors tell us they knew. Finally, a symbolic connection is made between shackles and torcs.