Prehistoric Times Research Articles

Research on Deriving a Proportional System of a Roof Structure Through the Analysis of Hanok Architectural Design Methods

Hanoks are structures that have been built with unique techniques and styles since prehistoric times. Demand for hanoks is growing because they are recognized as climate-friendly buildings that make use of the natural environment as it is. However, there are a lack of standardized records concerning the methods or standards for constructing hanoks, so inferring them through the dimensional analysis of existing buildings is challenging. The roof of a hanok is its most beautiful part, and its proportions change the appearance of the hanok. Relying on existing examples or inherited figures when designing hanoks has led to the formation of uniform hanoks and the loss of their identity due to the lack of proportional standards. This study aimed to derive a proportional roof structure system by analyzing hanok architectural design methods. The employed method allowed for an analysis of the types of roofs and eaves of hanoks and extracted all the roof-related factors, such as the eave overhang, eave angle, roof angle, and hanok height. These data were compared with each other to find regularities and derive a final proportional system for a hanok roof structure. The analysis showed that the eave-height-to-roof-height ratio is 5.5:4.5, and notably, the sum of the eave and roof angles is in the range of 118°~120°, which means that the lower the eave angle, the higher the roof angle. Therefore, the roof structure of a hanok should not be designed based on a partial average value; rather, it should be based on a mutual proportional system considering the eave angle, roof angle, hanok height, and eave height. The results of this study can provide designers with a basis for creating hanoks through the use of the proportional system of roofs. This data basis guarantees continuity between the past and the present, and the proposed system can serve as a guide for hanok roof design and structural analysis.

Sociocultural and Historical Perspectives on Diversity in Spain

The image of Spain in the 21st century is defined by the coexistence of the descendants of different peoples who have arrived in the region over the past centuries and decades. Since prehistoric times, the history of the Iberian Peninsula has been marked by interactions between the groups that settled there; sometimes these relationships have involved a certain type of subordination and domination (for example, conqueror versus conquered), and at other times they have been characterised by the peaceful or conflictual coexistence of different societies. Thus, immigration, coexistence and assimilation have always been fundamental to the social and cultural life of Spain. To this day, cultural historians and philosophers have not been able to agree on whether the diversity of society has been an advantage or a disadvantage for the development of Spain. In this article, I will examine the approaches to this social and cultural diversity in different historical periods and the basic arguments used by scholars and scientists to support their beliefs. In analysing the issue, we look at prominent works and authors in Spanish cultural history, searching for and comparing possible arguments. We try to answer the question to what extent the search for homogeneity or diversity has been part of the Spanish self-definition in a given historical period.

Jejak Okupasi Manusia Prasejarah di Situs Gua Batu Baras, Kalimantan Selatan

Batu Baras Cave, located in Bangkalan Dayak village, is an archaeological site in the limestone hill area of ​​Kotabaru Regency, South Kalimantan. Kalimantan prehistoric times have not been established as well as in Java. Recent publications reveal human occupation in the Preneolithic-Paleometallic period in the Kotabaru karst, including in Batu Cave, Cililin Cave 1, Jauharlin Cave 1, and Batu Baras Cave. This article describes the variability of archaeological findings to reveal that human occupation occurred in Batu Baras Cave. Morphological and stylistic analysis aims to illustrate the variety of archaeological data found. We used several approaches to compile the interpretation, including zooarchaeology, paleoanthropology, and spatial. Our result reveals that human occupation in Batu Baras Cave occurred in the early Prenolithic-Neolithic period in 12,402-4,230 calBP. Batu Baras Cave became a dwelling and burial site for the Australomelanesid population in the Preneolithic. The Austronesians inhabited Batu Baras Cave in the Neolithic.

Developing a STEM Curriculum Through the Community History of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to Enhance the Ability to be a Tour Guide and the Local Consciousness of Elementary School Students

The objective of this research is 1) To study in-depth knowledge about the historical context of the Ban Prohm Thin Tai community, 2) To design an educational management approach a STEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students, and 3) To study the outcomes of using the community-based historical education approach through the STEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students. This research is Action Research. The sample in the study consists of (1) a group of informants regarding the community history of Ban Phrom Thin Tai, comprising 12 people, (2) A group of experts evaluating the curriculum management of learning includes 5 individuals including science teachers, educators, and curriculum experts, and (3) The experimental group using the learning management approach comprises 23 elementary school students selected through purposive sampling, totaling 40 participants. 1) A deep study of the historical knowledge related to the community of Ban Prohm Thin Tai revealed that this area has archaeological sites that have been inhabited since prehistoric times. Over time, it developed into an urban community during historical times, characterized by the construction of moats and earthen embankments influenced by Indian culture. Furthermore, archaeological excavations have unearthed prehistoric human skeletons and various artifacts such as pottery fragments, rings, beads, and axes. These discoveries indicate that the area around Ban Prohm Thin Tai has a long history of civilization, making it worthy of preservation as a heritage for future generations. 2) Designing guidelines for a STEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students found that, the researchers have developed a comprehensive approach to a STEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students. This approach is termed the STEM+H model, which includes (1) Science, integrated history (2) Technology, integrated history (3) Engineering, integrated history (4) mathematics, and integrated history. The overall suitability of the model was found to be highly effective based on the evaluation results. 3) A study of the results of using the STEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai to enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students found that the approach of the TEM Curriculum through the community history of Ban Prohm Thin Tai can enhance the ability to be a tour guide and the local consciousness of Elementary School students.

Olax dissitiflora Oliv. (small-fruited olax): Current status and future prospects as medicinal plant

Olax dissitiflora Oliv. (O. dissitiflora) has several medicinal uses, some of them known since prehistoric times. The present review compiles existing knowledge of the chemical and pharmacological properties, current medicinal uses, and further use potential and applications of O. dissitiflora. Multiple searches on existing literature on the medicinal, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of O. dissitiflora were conducted in online databases such as Scopus, JSTOR, PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct as well as using pre-electronic literature sources obtained from the university library. This study showed that the bark, leaves, roots and twigs of O. dissitiflora are used as aphrodisiac, emetic, mosquito repellent and purgative, and as traditional medicines against dental problems, gonorrhoea, hernia, venereal diseases and wounds. The phytochemical evaluation of the plant revealed that it contains reducing sugars, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, quinones, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids, 21-epimachaerinic acid, oleanolic acid, hederagenin, oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronide, amphotericin, santalbic acid, exocarpic acid and octadic-9,11-diynoic acid. The pharmacological assessments showed that the crude extracts and phytochemical compounds isolated from the species have antibacterial, antifungal, antiplasmodial, larvicidal and adulticidal activities. The collected ethnomedicinal and ethnopharmacological properties of O. dissitiflora documented in this review will assist to understand the therapeutic relevance and potential of the species as well as providing baseline data required for ethnopharmacological assessments required in the discovery of novel plant-based health products. There is also need for more studies focusing on phytochemistry, pharmacological properties and toxicological evaluations, in vivo and clinical research on O. dissitiflora to compliment and validate the ethnomedicinal properties of the species.

RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK IN THE DISTRICTS OF DAK SONG AND DAK MIL, DAK NONG PROVINCE, IN 2018

This study investigates the archaeological potential of Dak Nong Province, Vietnam, as revealed by fieldwork in the Dak Song and Dak Mil districts. We conducted field surveys at various sites, resulting in the discovery of a rich prehistoric heritage in the region, despite challenges posed by complex natural conditions. While artifact distribution and concentration vary across sites, we identified significant concentrations in areas near lakes, rivers, and streams. We find that at locations such as Village 9A, volcanic Lake Dak Mil, and Tay Son Village, traces of concentration are faint. In contrast, at sites such as Dak Peur Border Gate and Tan Lap Village, there are traces of a dense population and long occupation by prehistoric people. The prehistoric inhabitants of Dak Mil and Dak Song districts often lived along lakes, rivers, and streams that did not dry up in the dry season; they lived in a large area and were highly mobile. Our preliminary research highlights the value of Dak Nong Province in studying the early stages of prehistory and cultural development in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam. This also underscores the importance of preserving and promoting archaeological heritage in Dak Mil and Dak Song districts.

Effects of climate change and extreme weather events on natural and archaeological landscapes in southwestern Puerto Rico

Recent archaeological fieldwork in the intertidal zone of southwestern Puerto Rico has revealed a unique landscape of ancient shell mounds (accumulations of marine shells deposited by prehistoric peoples). These mounds are, at present, protected from tidal inundation, storm surge, and storm-driven winds by a buffering arc of mangroves known as the Pitahaya Mangrove Forest (PMF). Concerns about the long-term health of these mangroves, and their continuing ability to shelter the shell mounds, motivated the current diachronic remote sensing study examining the effects of both long-term climatic factors (sea level rise, global climate change) and extreme weather events (droughts, hurricanes) on the recent and future health of the PMF. Ultimately, the analysis of NDVI change derived from multispectral satellite imagery, coupled with local climate and weather data and drone-based ground-truthing, revealed troubling trends in the health of the PMF that portend a rather grim future for both the mangroves and the unique ancient landscape they protect.

Animal and Plant Wealth and its Impact on the Economy of Mesopotamia

1- The first period of human life in prehistoric times was known as the period of food gathering economy, as it depended on gathering wild plants and hunting animals, and made simple tools and machines from stones and animal bones that were used in hunting, and used tree leaves and animal skins to make clothes. As for the second period, the Neolithic era, it was known as the period of food production economy when he learned agriculture and domesticated animals. Agriculture was initially described as meeting the need and was cultivated in small areas and in one season. 2- When he learned the life of stability and lived in permanent villages, the oldest of which is the village of Jarmo, many tools were found made of flint, stone vessels, spoons and pottery. In addition, the village contained permanent houses and clay ovens for making bread, fireplaces, basins, stoves and clay dolls. 3- Domesticating animals, especially goats, sheep and pigs, benefiting from their meat, cheese, skins and fat to make oils, and domesticating dogs. 4- The most important crops that he cultivated were wheat and barley, and later in other areas he cultivated lentils, flax and legumes. 5- In the Stone Age, he learned fertilization and artificial irrigation. He cultivated large areas and had a surplus in production, which prompted him to make large-sized stores to store the surplus, noting that the stores had existed since the era of Hassouna, but they were small. He also learned trade and the barter system and the discovery of metals. Specialization in work and division of labor appeared, and other crafts and professions appeared. The pottery wheel, spinning and weaving discs, and seals were invented. 6- Wool and hair of sheep and goats and some plants such as flax were used to make clothes using spinning discs. 7- Many pottery vessels of different sizes and shapes were found, and they contained drawings, decorations, engravings, and colors of great precision, some of which were made by hand and others with a pottery wheel. Tools and machines were made of copper. 8- Moving to the south and the emergence of large cities, carrying out irrigation projects, and the emergence of the first systems of government. 9- A change and development occurred in the human mind, benefiting from the natural environment and the wealth it contains that could serve him as a result of the development of social , cultural and economic life. 10- Plant cultivation and domestication were coupled with animal husbandry and domestication, as both complement each other in terms of benefit. Because of them, other crafts and professions emerged, including the manufacture of tools and machines, pottery and weaving. Trade also flourished as a result of an increase in the surplus and the increase in labor. 11- Learning how to extract oils and methods of obtaining them from plants and animals which was of great importance because it had multiple uses, especially in cooking, and the demand for it increased in trade. 12- Plant and animal wealth played an important role in its prosperity and economic recovery, as it represented the backbone of the economy of Mesopotamia. 13- Our information about animals and plants came from cuneiform texts and seals that show scenes of hunting animals, scenes of grazing sheep, scenes of ears of wheat and plants, and from murals on the walls of palaces, scenes of barns designated for raising animals, scenes of relief and three-dimensional sculptures that show domesticated domesticated animals, and scenes of hunting predatory animals.

THE EFFECTS OF MAMMOTHS ON HUMANITY'S FAITH AND BUILDING ACTIVITIES

It is highly likely that early humans, who generally lived in open nature, emptied large animal carcasses and used them as temporary shelters. This is because there are clear similarities between the mammoth skeletal system and the structural systems of constructions built by humans since prehistoric times. Early humans, who utilized deceased mammoth bodies as temporary shelters outside caves, might have later attempted to construct more permanent, taller, and wider-span huts using same materials. Many mammoth bone huts have been discovered across the Ukrainian and Russian Steppes, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period, and these structures may be the result of such efforts. The construction method of this huts involves stacking large mammoth bones and covering them with mammoth skins. The potential impact of mammoths, which held great significance in the survival of early humans, on early belief systems and construction activities cannot be overlooked. This study aims to formulate "scientific opinions" on these issues by interpreting existing data in a relational manner. The "speculative thesis" proposed in this study suggests that even before the existence of mammoth bone huts (pre-Upper Paleolithic), individuals utilized mammoth rib cages as single-person shelters. Accordingly, early humans may have commenced constructing these huts using mammoth large bones in later periods. Thus, in later periods, even after the mammoths had disappeared, the forms of both the mammoth body, the mammoth ribcage, and the huts made of mammoth bone may have been reflected in the architectural geometry of huts, tents, and houses.

DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS IN HYLLIE MOSSE (SCANIA, SWEDEN): ESTIMATING ABSOLUTE POPULATION BETWEEN THE LATE NEOLITHIC AND THE EARLY BRONZE AGES

SummaryThis paper reconstructs the population dynamics within the Hyllie Mosse region (Scania, Sweden) from 2400 to 1600 BC. South‐western Scania is particularly well‐known thanks to extensive archaeological work in the past decades, making it one of the most thoroughly investigated areas in Sweden. The Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods are of paramount importance in understanding the socio‐cultural transformations within the Baltic region. By integrating a comprehensive database of longhouses from Scania with the available archaeological data from the Hyllie Mosse area, this study provides absolute demographic estimates through a transparent and replicable methodology. It highlights that the region experienced a significant peak in human occupation between 2000 and 1800 BC, followed by a decline. In prehistoric times, the area was covered by a relatively large bog, and was therefore not uniformly settled. At its peak, it is estimated that the region, approximately 9.7 km2 in size – 4 km2 of which have been archaeologically investigated – could have supported 75 to 150 inhabitants.

Pleistocene Glacial Transport of Nephrite Jade from British Columbia, Canada, to Coastal Washington State, USA

Since prehistoric times, indigenous residents of southwest British Columbia, Canada, collected water-worn nephrite specimens from the gravel bars along the Fraser River, using the stone for the manufacture of tools that were widely traded with other tribes. Allochthonous nephrite occurs in another geologic setting. Late Pleistocene continental glaciers transported nephrite and many other rock types from western Canada to northwest Washington State, producing extensive sediment deposits that border the Salish Sea coast in Whatcom and Island Counties, Washington. This material was little utilized by indigenous residents, but “black jade” specimens are prized by modern collectors. The depositional history and mineralogy of this material has received little attention. X-ray diffraction and SEM/EDS analyses indicate that the Salish Sea “black jade” is a form of impure nephrite that probably originated from metamorphism of a mafic igneous parent material (metabasite). The texture consists of prismatic amphibole crystals (ferro-actinolite) set in a matrix rich in plagioclase feldspar. Pyrite inclusions are locally present. A second material, sometimes erroneously labelled “muttonfat jade” by amateur collectors, consists of an intermixture of quartz and sillimanite.

New chronology evidence of prehistoric human activities indicated by pottery luminescence dating in the humid subtropical mountains of South China

The age of prehistoric human sites serves as a fundamental basis for studying the relationship between human activities and landscape changes in the humid subtropical mountains of South China. The presence of pottery in these archaeological sites is widespread and offers a valuable resource for precise dating purposes. The Longtoushan (LTS) site, located in the northern mountains of Fujian Province, contains a rich variety of pottery types from various periods, representing a rare multi-period stratigraphic overlap in this area and playing a crucial role in constructing the cultural sequence and lineage of prehistoric and ancient times in this region. In this study, we employed thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques to establish the age of pottery samples collected from the LTS site situated in the upper Minjiang River region of southeast China for the first time, while also comparing our findings with other dating methods to construct a chronological framework for the site. The results showed that: (1) The samples analyzed in this study can be classified according to the peak strength of 325 °C TL signal at natural and regenerative doses of quartz. Samples with weak TL signal at 325 °C (type II samples) showed high recuperation and equivalent dose underestimation at a low preheat temperature (220 °C) in OSL test. (2) Conventional SAR procedures employed for type I samples are not suitable for type II samples. Type II samples require additional OSL stimulation towards the end of the cycle and an extended stimulation duration. (3) The application of various dating methods has revealed that the LTS site represents a long-term settlement in the humid subtropical mountains of South China, commencing around 4.6–4.4 thousand years ago (ka). Specifically, the dating of pottery pieces from kiln sites and tombs in the late Neolithic period provides a specific temporal reference for further understanding of prehistoric human culture and production behavior in the humid mountains of Fujian.

Global prospects for cultivating Centella asiatica: An ecological niche modeling approach under current and future climatic scenarios

Centella asiatica is a medicinal plant recognized for its various benefits contributed by its metabolites and has been used as a food supplement since prehistorical times across various cultures. Due to the reliance on natural populations of C. asiatica and the impacts of environmental factors on its yield and centelloside production, there is a need to identify suitable cultivation areas for this species. We employed ecological niche modelling with bioclimatic and soil variables to evaluate the suitability of cultivation under current and future climatic scenarios. Our results identified suitable areas for cultivating C. asiatica worldwide, indicating its potential for global commercial cultivation. However, the niche reconstruction of highly concentrated centelloside was restricted to South and Southeast Asia due to the lack of available data. When we projected the modelled niche of centelloside in these regions, we observed a lower occurrence probability in some areas, suggesting potential challenges in cost-effectiveness. Nevertheless, our results suggest a consistent future distribution for this species when we projected the modelled niche under future climates based on various socio-economic scenarios. This study not only identifies suitable areas to develop commercial cultivation for C. asiatica with highly concentrated centelloside, but also provides supporting evidence of the consistency of these areas, which can increase its sustainability.

Stress and Struggles of Soil Biodiversity in the Global Innovative Technology for Food Sustainability

Right from pre-historic times, humans have always looked for ways to explore the environment to satisfy basic economic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter. History is filled with various strategies borne out of this desire by humans to subdue the environment and judging from the drawbacks of some scientific advancements, one will be stating the obvious that the soil environment is at the receiving end of the brazen intrusion of nature. Regardless of the improvement in science we still experience environmental challenges such as soil pollution, soil degradation, drought, biodiversity loss, deforestation, etc. This article advocates that the advancement in science with the sole aim of food security and sustainability should not necessarily translate into stress and struggle for soil biodiversity.

The adaptation of dryland crops to the climate in southern China

It is unclear how dryland crops adapted to the humid climate of southern China, nevertheless they were an important component of prehistoric agricultural systems in the region. In this study, archaeobotanical results assembled from 110 archaeological sites in southern China, Digital Elevation Model (DEM)-based slope results of these archaeological sites, regional meteorological data and paleoclimate records were used to analyse the main factors affecting the distribution of prehistoric dryland agriculture, to help understand the adaptation of this agriculture to southern China and assess the role of climate change in the expansion of dryland crops in the region. The results highlighted the importance of effective water input and temperature. Farmers in prehistoric times adopted diverse strategies to plant dryland crops in southern China. The main proportion of the dryland crops centred on the use of foxtail millet (over 75% of the total dryland crops) and it was adjusted to adapt to the variations in effective water inputs resulting from precipitation and topography in the low-elevation area. Approximately 3° might be the slope threshold for agricultural transformation in the low-elevation humid areas of southern China. The millets-dominated (61.7%) or rice-dominated (85.3%) agricultural systems in dry-hot valleys, and wheat-dominated (51.8%) agriculture in the west Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau were developed to adapt to the arid climate and the low summer temperature, respectively. The weakening of the Asian monsoon since 5000 BC had objectively favoured the expansion of dryland agriculture in the low-slope areas of southern China, but the role of climate change should not be overestimated in the expansion of dryland crops.

Study on the control effectiveness of relative humidity by various ventilation systems for the conservation of cultural relics

The Dadiwan F901 site, boasting a history of over 5000 years, stands as the largest and most intricately crafted large-scale housing structure from China’s prehistoric era. The early renovation efforts, incorporating a sealed glass curtain wall, led to a continuous rise in relative humidity within the site, triggering outbreaks of microbial diseases. Subsequent measures successfully restored stability to the thermal and humid environment. This paper employs on-site real-time environmental monitoring and numerical simulation methods to assess the ventilation effectiveness and relative humidity changes before and after multiple interior modifications of the Dadiwan F901 site museum. The results indicate that the fully enclosed glass curtain wall can suppress the dependence of indoor humidity fluctuations on external weather fluctuations but has generated unintended consequences, leading to increased air relative humidity and even reaching saturation in the museum space. The strategic deployment of louvered windows and duct fans proved effective in enhancing internal airflow dynamics and overall air exchange capacity. It was possible to ensure that the relative humidity inside the site remained at approximately 70%, meeting the essential requirements for the preservation of cultural relics. This study is of great significance for alleviating the deterioration problem of enclosed exhibition halls of earthen relics.Graphical

The Use of Heterocyclic Azo Dyes on Different Textile Materials: A Review

The art of dyeing textiles has a long history, as natural dyes have been used since prehistoric times. With the development of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, the focus shifted from natural to synthetic dyes due to their superior properties. Recently, however, interest in natural dyes has increased again due to environmental and health concerns. Among industrial dyes, heterocyclic dyes, especially azo dyes, are of great importance due to their color brilliance and fastness. This review examines the synthesis, application, and analysis of azo dyes, especially heterocyclic dyes. It deals with monoazo, diazo, and polyazo dyes and highlights their structures, synthesis methods, and fastness properties. In addition, the ecological impact of azo dyes and practical solutions for their synthesis and application are discussed.

Petrology and Provenance Study of Stone Artifacts from the Mesolithic Cave of Kouvaras in Attica: A Preliminary Report

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the lithology and raw material provenance of stone artifacts discovered in the prehistoric cave of Kouvaras in Eastern Attica, dating back to the 10th-9th millennia B.C. The study aims to determine whether these prehistoric artifacts were made on local or non-local raw materials. The research consists of two main components: a field study to detect the geological features of the region and collect raw material samples, and a laboratory investigation using XRD, SEM and p-XRF techniques to conduct a petrological analysis. The results suggest that relying solely on chert chemistry to effectively determine the sources of chert artifacts is not a reliable method. By combining several analytical methods and taking a holistic approach, researchers can gain valuable insights into prehistoric human interactions with the local geological environment and the use of available natural resources to make artifacts in prehistoric times.

Historical, Cultural and Architectural Review of The Travnik

Travnik is a town located on the Lasva river in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, about 90 km west of Sarajevo. In the area of today’s Travnik, on the Lašva river, the prehistoric Illyrian people and then the ancient Romans panned gold here. Preserved material traces and historiographical sources about Travnik bear witness to the long historical continuity of people’s lives in this area. Artifacts over 7,000 years old were found in the river valleys of Bila and Lasva (locality Nebo, Han Bila and Crkvine, Turbe). The settlements belonged to the "Butmir cultural group" and as an archaeological subgroup of monuments. In the Bila valley, a somewhat older Neolithic settlement of the ’Kakan culture group’ was discovered, which was destroyed by river erosion, and in Alihodža traces of the Eneolithic settlement of the ’Vucedol culture’ were found’. In written sources, the parish of Lasva is mentioned for the first time (1244) in the list of bishop’s sermons, and then (1380) in the letter of the Bosnian king Stjepan Tvrtko I (1338-1391) to Hrvoj Vukcic Hrvatinic (1350-1416), in which he appoints him as grand duke and presents mu Bila, Trebeus and Lupnica in Lasva parish. There are several versions about the origin of the name Travnik. According to one of them, the city got its name from the spacious pastures and the word ’grass’, while according to the other version, the name originated from the medieval pre-Ottoman fortress where the clerk collected the ’herbal tax’. The town was first mentioned under the name Travnik (1463) in connection with the events related to the collapse of the Bosnian kingdom.

The Caveman from Space Paradox

A caveman; a primitive human from a prehistoric era. 10 thousand to 40 thousand year old man. Einsteins theory of relativity states that nothing with mass can move faster than the speed of light, and that space and time are not independent. So what does this mean for space travel?