Pregnant Prisoners Research Articles

Institutional thoughtlessness and the incarcerated pregnancy

This article examines the unique experiences of pregnant women in prison, building on Sykes’ concept of the pains of imprisonment and Crawley’s notion of institutional thoughtlessness. Based on qualitative data from an ethnographic study of three English prisons, including interviews with 28 pregnant prisoners and 10 staff members and field observations, the study highlights the lack of basic provisions for pregnant women, such as adequate nutrition, fresh air and suitable bedding. The article argues that the lack of such rudimentary provisions leads to the unique experience of the pains of imprisonment for pregnant women. The article argues that the prison system needs to take a more considerate approach to prisoners who have specialist requirements, including pregnant women, rather than treating them as a homogenised group.

A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Psychological Experiences of Incarcerated Pregnant Women.

With the increasing number of incarcerated women worldwide, the rate of women who experience pregnancy in prison, has also increased in this population. Exploring the unique experience of pregnant prisoners can contribute to understanding the complex world of this vulnerable population and, as a result, tailoring programs to promote their health status. The objective of this study was to understand the psychological experience of pregnancy in prison based on the lived experiences of incarcerated women. This was a qualitative inquiry using van Manen's approach to phenomenology. Seven pregnant and four early postpartum women, with experience of pregnancy during incarceration, were selected purposefully in a prison in Iran from 2019 to 2020. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. To analyze data, six-step van Manen's descriptive-interpretive phenomenological approach was adopted using MAXQDA10 software. The main theme of "white torture", a term used to describe the psychological and emotional distress experienced by incarcerated pregnant women, emerged from the data analysis. This theme echoes the pressure and torment of pregnancy on incarcerated women and consists of two subthemes: "captive to bitter and harsh emotions" and "suffering from psychosomatic pain and injuries." As an emotional trauma, pregnancy puts incarcerated women under psychological torture. Policies should be developed towards the acknowledgment and meeting of the unique psychological needs of pregnant women in prison. It is also crucial for healthcare providers to provide women in prison with training on coping strategies to address the psychological and emotional challenges of pregnancy.

Motherhood Experiences of Incarcerated Pregnant Women: A Phenomenological Study.

Motherhood in prison is a topic of growing importance and concern in the field of criminal justice. Incarcerated mothers face unique challenges that can have profound psychological impacts. The purpose of this study was to gain a deep understanding of pregnant prisoners' lived experiences of motherhood. This qualitative research was carried out using descriptive-interpretive phenomenology via interviews with 11 pregnant or early postpartum women in prison. The participants were purposefully selected from incarcerated pregnant women in a prison in Iran from 2019 to 2021. The MAXQDA software version 10 was used for data analysis, using Van Manen's six-step phenomenological approach. The main theme of "living in a dichotomous world "consisting of two subthemes of "moving between unity and separation" and "being subject to ambiguity and uncertainty" emerged in this study. Motherhood in prison is just like living in a shaky and chaotic world, in which mothers are confused between reaching to and separating from their children. They are ambivalent about motherhood and experience mixed emotions of attachment and abandonment to their child and cannot be confident regarding the future of themselves and their children. Incarcerated mothers experience mixed emotions of attachment and abandonment towards their children, which leaves them uncertain about the future. It is recommended that security personnel of the prisons and families offer care and support to incarcerated mothers through constructive communications and empathy to enhance their well-being. It also seems crucial to adopt a community-centered approach that provides empathetic support and implements inclusive policies.

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

Pregnant Prisoners in Shackles

Sexual and reproductive history of female prisoners in Iran: a health care needs analysis

PurposeAccording to estimates, there are approximately 714,000 female prisoners in the world. A considerable proportion are pregnant, of childbearing age at the time of incarceration and may experience numerous reproductive health concerns. The purpose of this study is to examine the demographics and sexual and reproductive history of female prisoners in Iran.Design/methodology/approachFour hundred and thirty-four female prisoners (mean age: 39.0 ± 9.9) serving sentences at Qarchak prison, Iran, completed a questionnaire. The participants were recruited between October 2017 and September 2018 using a convenient sampling method. The questionnaire captured sociodemographic characteristics and sexual and reproductive history.FindingsMost respondents had 7–12 years of formal education, were housewives (69.9%), were either married (41.6%) or divorced (41.8%) and were literate (91.3%). History of drug use among the respondents was 34.7%. Most respondents had regular menstruation (63.5%) and were pre-menopausal (86.1%). Natural birth control was preferred (39.7%) compared to other methods, such as condoms (18%) and oral contraceptive pills (8.4%). Spontaneous and induced abortions were reported by 17.8% and 16.4% of respondents, respectively. There was 5.9% of respondents that reported having a history of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) before incarceration, with HPV the most common (12.7%).Research limitations/implicationsThis study has limitations, including the problem of following up with prisoners to shorten the average length of their imprisonment, which can leave many issues in the field of women’s health and their follow-up incomplete. Prison health care workers should also follow up on women’s health and pregnancy hygiene after their release because there is usually a high prevalence of STIs in prisoners.Practical implicationsThe findings highlight the importance of improving the quality of women’s health care and pregnancy-related care in prisons. Additionally, the importance of having a health protocol for incarcerated women in Iran. Other programs should also be implemented for women prisoners to eliminate the discrimination they may face in prison.Originality/valueThe international community has attempted to develop care guidelines for pregnant prisoners, particularly for prenatal and mental health services. However, currently in Iran no such guidelines have been developed. To date no research has explored the sexual health among female prisoners of this country. The aim of the present study was to examine the demographics and sexual and reproductive history of female prisoners in Iran. A secondary aim was to identify the health care needs of female prisoners in Iran.

Correctional officers as participants: Action research in prisons

Action research methodology is well-suited to engaging with marginalised groups to inform policy and guide practice. Prisons are complex institutions with hierarchies of power; social systems that demand a research approach suited to social structure. The pilot project to be evaluated is designed to promote positive pregnancy and birth experiences for pregnant female prisoners and provide extraordinary learning opportunities for midwifery students. The project team includes staff from a regional university, the local health service and the state run prison service. Very early in the project it became evident that in addition to management patronage, the project needed the practical support of the Custodial Correctional Officers. Thus, officers as project ‘champions’ were recruited. Custodial Correctional Officers play an integral role in these social systems and although they are perceived to have power over prisoners, they too are subject to controls and in some instances have minimal power. The study will be conducted in two stages, the first of which will involve the Custodial Correctional Officers as participants, focus on the outcomes to date and how this may inform policy and practice. This article justifies the use of action research methodology for this purpose.

A new career pathway for new graduate midwives: Barriers or opportunities?

More than 1 million women are under the control of the criminal justice system, representing the fastest growing group of prisoners. Women serving prison sentences most commonly have been convicted of drug‐related offenses followed by nonviolent crimes. It is estimated that 8% to 10% of women entering prison are pregnant. A disproportionally large number of women in prison have a history of physical or sexual abuse, substance abuse, and are mothers of minor children. Statistics indicate the average prison time for women is 12 months; therefore, on average, pregnant prisoners spend 6 to 12 months in prison after the birth of a child, a critical time period in the mothering experience.Breastfeeding offers immunological, developmental, and psychosocial benefits to mother and infant. Additionally, breastfeeding contributes to positive maternal self‐image and development of maternal–infant relationship. Currently, little is known about the experience of mothering while incarcerated or the benefits of breastfeeding in this population.A mother from a local jail delivered a term newborn at an urban medical center. Collaboratively the healthcare team, mother, father, and guards created a breastfeeding and pumping plan supporting the mother's desire to breastfeed. The newborn was discharged with the father who would pick up breast milk daily from the jail to feed the newborn. The jail agreed to allow the mother to pump in her cell and store milk in the medical unit refrigerator. At 10 days of age, the newborn's nutritional needs were met with expressed breast milk.For incarcerated women, pumping and storing breast milk is a simple and uncomplicated way to promote maternal–infant attachment and improve health for mother and infant. Nurses working with mothers who are incarcerated have the opportunity to change the mothering experience for incarcerated mothers and their newborns.

Reducing Regulatory Burdens on Research with Human Subjects: A Case Study of the Transition to the Final Common Rule at Boston Medical Center and Boston University Medical Campus

Boston Medical Center/Boston University Medical Campus recently reduced certain requirements for human subjects research where this could be done without adversely affecting the rights and welfare of participants, in anticipation of changes in the Final Common Rule. Modifications affected exempt and expedited categories, approval periods, ceding review, Quality Improvement/Quality Assessment activities, and some requirements for pregnant women, prisoners, and children. This case study may assist other institutions in responding to the Final Common Rule.

Mental Health Issues Among Pregnant Women in Correctional Facilities: A Systematic Review

Incarceration-induced stress makes pregnant women in correctional facilities a high-risk group for mental health problems, resulting in adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. A systematic review was conducted to examine the prevalence and correlates of mental health issues among pregnant inmates. Databases searched included PubMed, Medline, CINAHL Plus, PsycINFO, National Criminal Justice Reference System, Social Work s, Cochrane and Campbell libraries, which were searched for studies published in English from 1950 till July 2013. Eleven studies were included of pregnant women in correctional facilities and addressed at least one mental illness. Quality score was assigned to these eligible articles. Due to heterogeneity, a narrative review was performed. All of the studies were conducted in the United States, with quality scores ranging from 7 to 10 out of 10. Only one of these studies used mixed methods, the rest were quantitative. Tobacco use among pregnant inmates exceeded 50%, with some studies reporting as high as 84%. Alcohol use was common; 36% of the inmates used illicit drugs in one study. Depression and anxiety levels were high—some studies reported depression among 80% of inmates. Findings suggest that mental health among pregnant prisoners is a huge concern that has not been adequately addressed.

Shared Vulnerabilities in Research

The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations governing federally funded research on human subjects assumes that harmful research is sometimes morally justifiable because the beneficiaries of that research share a particular vulnerability with its subjects. In this article, I argue against this assumption, which occurs in every subpart of the Code of Federal Regulations that deals with specific vulnerable populations (pregnant women, fetuses, neonates, prisoners, and children). I argue that shared vulnerability is no exception to the general principle that harming one person in order to benefit another is no more justifiable if the two people have traits in common. Further, shared vulnerability is not a reasonable proxy for any morally relevant desideratum of research, in particular the desire to benefit the worst off, the desire to avoid exploitation, and the desire to use vulnerable populations in research only when necessary.

Pregnancy, prison and perinatal outcomes in New South Wales, Australia: a retrospective cohort study using linked health data

BackgroundStudies from the United States and the United Kingdom have found that imprisoned women are less likely to experience poorer maternal and perinatal outcomes than other disadvantaged women. This population-based study used both community controls and women with a history of incarceration as a control group, to investigate whether imprisoned pregnant women in New South Wales, Australia, have improved maternal and perinatal outcomes.MethodsRetrospective cohort study using probabilistic record linkage of routinely collected data from health and corrective services in New South Wales, Australia. Comparison of the maternal and perinatal outcomes of imprisoned pregnant women aged 18–44 years who gave birth between 2000–2006 with women who were (i) imprisoned at a time other than pregnancy, and (ii) community controls. Outcomes of interest: onset of labour, method of birth, pre-term birth, low birthweight, Apgar score, resuscitation, neonatal hospital admission, perinatal death.ResultsBabies born to women who were imprisoned during pregnancy were significantly more likely to be born pre-term, have low birthweight, and be admitted to hospital, compared with community controls. Pregnant prisoners did not have significantly better outcomes than other similarly disadvantaged women (those with a history of imprisonment who were not imprisoned during pregnancy).ConclusionsIn contrast to the published literature, we found no evidence that contact with prison health services during pregnancy was a “therapunitive” intervention. We found no association between imprisonment during pregnancy and improved perinatal outcomes for imprisoned women or their neonates. A history of imprisonment remained the strongest predictor of poor perinatal outcomes, reflecting the relative health disadvantage experienced by this population of women.

Supporting Mothering Through Breastfeeding for Incarcerated Women

<h2>Newborn Care Poster Presentation</h2><h3>Background</h3> More than 1 million women are under the control of the criminal justice system, representing the fastest growing group of prisoners. Women serving prison sentences most commonly have been convicted of drug‐related offenses followed by nonviolent crimes. It is estimated that 8% to 10% of women entering prison are pregnant. A disproportionally large number of women in prison have a history of physical or sexual abuse, substance abuse, and are mothers of minor children. Statistics indicate the average prison time for women is 12 months; therefore, on average, pregnant prisoners spend 6 to 12 months in prison after the birth of a child, a critical time period in the mothering experience. Breastfeeding offers immunological, developmental, and psychosocial benefits to mother and infant. Additionally, breastfeeding contributes to positive maternal self‐image and development of maternal–infant relationship. Currently, little is known about the experience of mothering while incarcerated or the benefits of breastfeeding in this population. <h3>Case</h3> A mother from a local jail delivered a term newborn at an urban medical center. Collaboratively the healthcare team, mother, father, and guards created a breastfeeding and pumping plan supporting the mother's desire to breastfeed. The newborn was discharged with the father who would pick up breast milk daily from the jail to feed the newborn. The jail agreed to allow the mother to pump in her cell and store milk in the medical unit refrigerator. At 10 days of age, the newborn's nutritional needs were met with expressed breast milk. <h3>Conclusion</h3> For incarcerated women, pumping and storing breast milk is a simple and uncomplicated way to promote maternal–infant attachment and improve health for mother and infant. Nurses working with mothers who are incarcerated have the opportunity to change the mothering experience for incarcerated mothers and their newborns.

Punishing Pregnancy: Race, Incarceration, and the Shackling of Pregnant Prisoners

The shackling of pregnant women prisoners during labor and childbirth is endemic within women’s penal institutions in the United States. This article interrogates the factors that account for the pervasiveness of this practice and suggests doctrinal innovations that may be leveraged to prevent its continuation. At a general level, it asserts that we cannot understand the persistence of shackling without understanding how historical constructions of race and gender operate structurally to both motivate and mask its use. More specifically, this article contends that the shackling of pregnant prisoners during labor and childbirth can best be understood through an analysis that centers Black women and foregrounds the historical devaluation, regulation and punishment of Black women’s exercise of reproductive capacity in the context of slavery, convict leasing and chain gangs in the South. The regulation and punishment of Black women within these oppressive systems reinforced and reproduced stereotypes of Black women as deviant and dangerous, and these images in turn animate harsh practices against all women prisoners. Moreover, this article asserts that current jurisprudence concerning the Eighth Amendment, which is the primary constitutional vehicle for challenging conditions of confinement, is insufficient to combat this problem at the structural level. This is so because of its focus on the subjective intentions of prison officials at the individual level and because of its omission of any consideration of how race underlies institutional practices. Instead, this article suggests an expanded reading of the Eighth Amendment and the 'evolving standards of decency' language that undergirds the 'cruel and unusual punishments' clause. This expanded reading, which this article refers to as the 'antisubordination approach,' draws upon Justice Harlan’s oft-cited dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson and his underappreciated reading of the Thirteenth Amendment therein to argue that conditions of confinement which result from or are related to repudiated mechanisms of racial domination should be deemed cruel and unusual punishment.

Legal Issues Regarding Medical Care for Pregnant Inmates

This article examines mothers in prison, highlighting the complexity and detrimental consequences incarceration has for their families and children. It documents the legal remedies available to pregnant prisoners, focusing on their unique medical needs. After reviewing the U.S. Supreme Court’s standard for liability, the article explores lower court case law to establish the legal parameters of pregnant prisoners’ health care needs. The article concludes that although correctional health care systems have made strides in bringing appropriate medical care to pregnant prisoners, more remains to be done to raise the quality of care to those similarly situated in the free-world.

Perinatal needs of pregnant, incarcerated women.

Pregnant prisoners have health-care needs that are minimally met by prison systems. Many of these mothers have high-risk pregnancies due to the economic and social problems that led them to be incarcerated: poverty, lack of education, inadequate health care, and substance abuse. Lamaze educators and doulas have the opportunity to replicate model programs that provide these women and their children with support, information, and empowering affirmation that improve parenting outcomes and decrease recidivism.

Psychological risk factors in pregnant inmates. A challenge for nursing.

To explore pregnant prisoners' experiences with childhood violence and substance abuse, their parenting attitudes, and their psychological health. This study used a prospective design to describe incarcerated pregnant women's experiences with childhood violence, substance abuse, parenting attitudes, and psychological health and the relationships among these factors. Sixty-three pregnant prisoners in their third trimester were interviewed. Owing to the low literacy of this population, all questions were read to participants to maximize comprehension and reliability. Over 60% of respondents reported experiencing family violence during childhood or adolescence. Almost one-half of the women reported using drugs and alcohol during the past year and in their current pregnancy. Substance-abusing respondents were twice as likely to have been victims of physical abuse. All of the women who had been sexually abused during childhood were substance abusers; women who did not use drugs had no such history. Many women in the study had parenting and child rearing attitudes indicative of risk for poor parenting and abuse. More than 70% of the women reported depressive symptoms above the level considered indicative of clinical depression. Women reported low levels of social support; further, 50% of the women had lost an important relationship within the last year and 80% were not in a relationship with a partner at the time of their interview. The essential components of caring for pregnant prisoners should include extensive screening for substance abuse as well as history of past and current violence. Pregnant prisoners, with their many risk factors, are a group that could benefit from programs that address substance abuse and violence to decrease mental distress.

Violence victimization experiences of pregnant prisoners.

The violence victimization histories of pregnant incarcerated women were studied in relation to those of pregnant health department patients in North Carolina. Prisoners were twice as likely as health department patients to have experienced both physical and sexual violence compared to no violence, and over three times more likely to have experienced both types of violence compared to only one type. Implications for research and program development are noted.

Rates of and risk factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City.

Trichomonas vaginalis is a common pathogen that is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and may serve as a cofactor in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission. To define the epidemiology of trichomoniasis in a population of newly incarcerated pregnant women in New York City. Prospective study of 213 pregnant prisoners attending prenatal clinic. Patients participated in an interview regarding sexual and drug-related behaviors, and underwent direct culture for T. vaginalis in addition to routine testing for syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia. The prevalence of trichomoniasis was 46.9%. On univariate analysis, there was a significant association between trichomoniasis and older age, crack use, prostitution, known HIV infection, and positive serological test for syphilis. Multivariate analysis showed a significant association of trichomoniasis with crack use and positive serological test for syphilis. Trichomoniasis is highly prevalent in pregnant prisoners in New York City. The extent of disease observed may justify a formal program of testing and treatment and emphasizes the urgent need for harm reduction education and expanded HIV counseling and testing services in this high-risk population.

RCM claims victory as shackling of pregnant prisoners is abandoned

RCM claims victory as shackling of pregnant prisoners is abandoned

Pregnant Prisoners: Impact of Incarceration on Health and Health Care

Approximately 55,000 women are held in state and federal prisons on any given day in the United States, one-quarter of whom are pregnant or newly delivered. The health care of pregnant prisoners sh...