Prefrontal Cortex In Children Research Articles

Hemodynamics of short-duration light-intensity physical exercise in the prefrontal cortex of children: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Identifying the types of exercise that enhance cerebral blood flow is crucial for developing exercise programs that enhance cognitive function. Nevertheless, few studies have explored the amount of light-intensity, short-duration exercises that individuals can easily perform on cerebral blood flow, particularly in children. We examined the effects of these exercises on the hemodynamics of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Participants comprised 41 children (aged 12.1 ± 1.5 years, 37% female) who engaged in seven light-intensity exercises, with each movement performed in two patterns lasting 10 or 20 s. Changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) levels at rest and during exercise were compared using analysis of covariance, with sex and age as covariates. Significant increases in oxy-Hb were observed in multiple regions of the PFC during all forms of exercise (including dynamic and twist stretching [66.6%, 8/12 regions, η2 = 0.07–0.27], hand and finger movements [75.0%, 9/12 regions, η2 = 0.07–0.16], and balance exercises (100.0%, 6/6 regions, η2 = 0.13–0.25]), except for static stretching with monotonic movements. This study implies that short-duration, light-intensity exercises, provided that they entail a certain degree of cognitive and/or physical demands, can activate the PFC and increase blood flow.

Efficacy and safety of transcranial direct current stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, triple-blinded, sham-controlled, crossover trial.

Although pharmacological treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has demonstrated efficacy, several individuals persist in experiencing social and academic impairment. Additionally, the occurrence of significant side effects may render the use of psychotropic medications untenable. However, Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive brain stimulation technique, shows promising results in treating ADHD. To investigate the efficacy and safety of tDCS on the performance of children and adolescents with ADHD in neuropsychological tests involving visual attention, visual and verbal working memory, and inhibitory control. This study was a triple-blind, randomized, sham-controlled, crossover clinical trial. The intervention consisted of a daily session of tDCS (2 mA) or sham targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-DLPFC), for 30 min, on five consecutive days. The primary outcome was change in the Visual Attention Test, Fourth Edition (TAVIS-4) before and after each intervention. Subjects were also evaluated pre and post-tDCS using the Digit Span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Edition (NEPSY-II) Inhibiting Response (IR) subtest, and the Corsi Block-Tapping Task. Fifteen individuals were included, and no statistically significant difference was observed when comparing the results of the TAVIS-4, the IR of NEPSY-II, and the intragroup Digit Span subtest of WISC-V undertaken before and after the procedure. Adverse events were mainly self-limiting and transient. The participants did not perceive any benefit from tDCS when measured on the Patient Global Impression of Improvement (PGI-I) Scale. This study did not meet its primary endpoint and found no performance enhancement in any investigated neuropsychological outcomes relating to the intervention group.

Effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on sleep structure and quality in children with autism.

Sleep disorders are common in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can influence the excitability of neuronal cells in stimulated areas, leading to improvements in sleep and other autistic symptoms. However, studies on clinical mechanisms of TMS in treating sleep disorders associated with ASD are limited. Therefore, we aimed to explore the effects of TMS on sleep structure and quality in children with ASD. Between January 2020 and December 2021, recruitment was advertised through child and adolescent outpatient clinics and online platforms by the Hangzhou Seventh People's Hospital and Lishui Second People's Hospital. Sixty children with ASD who met the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, were selected and randomly divided into the active TMS and sham TMS treatment groups. Thirty healthy children of the same age were recruited as controls. The active TMS group received bilateral low-frequency (0.5Hz) TMS targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on both sides in children with ASD, whereas the sham TMS group received sham stimulation with the same stimulation time and location as the experimental group. Both groups were treated for 6 weeks, and the participants were assessed using the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC) before treatment, at 3 weeks, and at 6 weeks of intervention. Independent sample t-tests and difference t-tests were used for statistical analysis of the data. No significant differences were observed in general demographic variables, such as age and sex, between the ASD and control groups (P>0.05). Independent sample t-test analysis showed that the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, awakening disorders, sleep-wake transition disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, and nocturnal hyperhidrosis scores were significantly higher in the ASD group than in the control group (P<0.05). Before treatment, no significant differences were observed in the factor or total SDSC scores between the sham TMS group and the active TMS group (P>0.05). After 15 and 30 treatment sessions, the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, sleep-wake transition disorders, and excessive daytime sleepiness scores were significantly higher in the sham TMS group than in the active TMS group (P<0.05). The difference t-test analysis showed that after 30 treatment sessions, the reduction rates of the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, awakening disorders, sleep-wake transition disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, and nocturnal hyperhidrosis dimensions were significantly higher in the active TMS group than in the sham TMS group (P<0.05). Low-frequency TMS targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in children with ASD can effectively improve their sleep status, and significant improvement can be achieved after 6 weeks (30 sessions) of treatment.

Response inhibition in children with different subtypes/presentations of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A near-infrared spectroscopy study.

Executive dysfunction in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is thought to be closely related to the prefrontal cortex (PFC). However, there is controversy over the activation of the PFC in children with ADHD. Differences could be related to the subtype. Meanwhile, no study to date has used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to explore the differences between subtypes. Thus, this study aimed to explore the activation of the PFC in children with different subtypes of ADHD during executive function task. Participants in this study include typically developing (TD) children (n = 28), ADHD-predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI) (n = 39) and ADHD-combined (ADHD-C) (n = 24). To examine the executive function of ADHD, the Go/No-go task is chosen to assess the response inhibition function. The activation of PFC in all participants during the Go/No-go task was recorded by fNIRS. Meanwhile, behavioral data were also recorded. Both TD and ADHD children activated the right PFC [middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)] during response inhibition. However, the range and degree of activation differed among these groups. Compared with TD children, those with ADHD-PI had a smaller extent of activation in the right PFC, and those with ADHD-C only had a tendency to enhance activation. In addition, children with ADHD-PI and ADHD-C had impaired activation of the temporal gyrus. Besides, compared with ADHD-C and TD, those with ADHD-PI also had impaired activation of the right precentral gyrus (PG), and the supplementary motor area (SMA). Compared with ADHD-PI, ADHD-C showed decreased activation of the right MFG. The activation of Ch34 (BA44, rPFC) in children with ADHD-PI and ADHD-C was negatively correlated with their clinical symptoms. The activation of the PFC in children with different subtypes of ADHD has both commonalities and differences. The degree of activation of the right PFC Ch34 in children with ADHD is negatively correlated with clinical symptoms. fNIRS could be served as a candidate hemodynamic biomarker for the diagnosis of ADHD.

Maternal sensitivity at the age of 8 months associates with local connectivity of the medial prefrontal cortex in children at 5 years of age.

The quality of mother–child interaction, especially maternal sensitivity in caregiving behavior, plays an important role in a child’s later socioemotional development. Numerous studies have indicated associations between poor mother–child interaction and offspring brain structure and function, but more knowledge on how variation in the characteristics of early caregiving is associated with children’s brain structure and function is needed. We investigated whether maternal sensitivity at 8 or 30 months is associated with functional connectivity in a child’s brain at 5 years of age based on the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study (17 and 39 mother–child dyads at 8 and 30 months, respectively, with an overlap of 13 dyads). Maternal sensitivity was assessed during a free play interaction using the Emotional Availability Scales at 8 and 30 months of the children’s age. Task-free functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was acquired at the age of 5 years in 7-min scans while watching the Inscapes movie. Regional homogeneity (ReHo) maps were created from the fMRI data, and multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the relation between maternal sensitivity and ReHo. Maternal sensitivity at the age of 8 months was positively associated with children’s ReHo values within the medial prefrontal cortex. Distal connectivity of this region showed no significant association with maternal sensitivity in a seed-based connectivity analysis. No associations were found between maternal sensitivity during toddlerhood and brain functional connectivity. Together, these results suggest that maternal sensitivity, especially in infancy, may influence offspring brain functional connectivity. However, studies with larger sample sizes are warranted.

The Relationship between Executive Function and the Conservation of Quantity in Early Childhood Cognitive Processes from the Viewpoint of the Prefrontal Cortex

Conservation and executive function (EF) are important early childhood skills; however, knowledge about their relationship is scarce. Hence, in this study, this relationship is investigated, and a comparison is conducted between the Piagetian conservation and EF tasks to obtain the total hemoglobin (mMmm) for the left and right brain activity in the prefrontal cortex of children, using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy. As a case study, a survey was conducted in the home of a four-year-old child (boy) in Japan in 2020. His home was selected as the primary place of investigation owing to the spread of the coronavirus disease 2019 infection. The researcher was an expert in pedagogy and psychology. The following hypothesis could be formulated from the case studies analyzed herein: From the viewpoint of the brain activity in the prefrontal cortex, there may be a link between the conservation of quantity and EF. The preservation of quantity is closely related to mathematics education. This hypothesis can thus expand the scope of research and practice in the fields of psychology, education, and mathematics education. Furthermore, the results may help psychologists, psychiatrists, teachers, parents, and others involved in the development of children sublate the value of their concept of conservation and improve their support methods.

Functional connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex with pain-related regions in children with post-traumatic headache

Introduction: Post-traumatic headaches (PTH) are common following mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). There is evidence of altered central pain processing in adult PTH; however, little is known about how children with PTH process pain. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a critical role in descending central pain modulation. In this study, we explored whether the functional connectivity (FC) of the ACC is altered in children with PTH. Methods: In this case-control study, we investigated resting-state FC of 5 ACC seeds (caudal, dorsal, rostral, perigenual, and subgenual) in children with PTH ( n = 73) and without PTH ( n = 29) following mTBI, and healthy controls ( n = 27). Post-concussion symptoms were assessed using the Post-Concussion Symptom Inventory and the Child Health Questionnaire. Resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data were used to generate maps of ACC FC. Group-level comparisons were performed within a target mask comprised of pain-related regions using FSL Randomise. Results: We found decreased FC between the right perigenual ACC and the left cerebellum, and increased FC between the right subgenual ACC and the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in children with PTH compared to healthy controls. The ACC FC in children without PTH following mTBI did not differ from the group with PTH or healthy controls. FC between rostral and perigenual ACC seeds and the cerebellum was increased in children with PTH with pre-injury headaches compared to those with PTH without pre-injury headaches. There was a positive relationship between PTH severity and rostral ACC FC with the bilateral thalamus, right hippocampus and periaqueductal gray. Conclusions: Central pain processing is altered in children with PTH. Pre-existing headaches help to drive this process. Trial registration: The PlayGame Trial was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov database ( ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01874847).

Association between exposure to air pollution and prefrontal cortical volume in adults: A cross-sectional study from the UK biobank

Associated with numerous cognitive and behavioral functions and with several diseases, the prefrontal cortex is vulnerable to environmental insult. Among other factors, toxins in air pollution have been associated with damage to the prefrontal cortex in children and older adults. We used data from the UK Biobank to assess further associations between an array of toxins in air pollution and gray matter in the prefrontal cortex including the left and right frontal poles, left and right superior frontal gyri, left and right frontal medial cortex, left and right orbitofrontal cortex, and left and right frontal opercula, using multivariate models adjusted for covariates that possibly could confound the association between air pollution and volume of prefrontal gray matter. The results showed inverse associations between PM 2.5, PM 10, and nitrogen oxides and prefrontal volume in models adjusted for age, sex, education, socioeconomic status, race-ethnicity, self-rated overall health, body mass index, total brain volume, smoking status, and alcohol use frequency. Education appeared to moderate the association between air pollution and prefrontal volume. The data in these analyses came from regions whose mean PM 2.5 was near the upper limit and whose mean PM 10 was under those recommended by the World Health Organization. These findings suggest that comparatively low levels of air pollution might be associated with reduced volume of the prefrontal cortex.

Rôle de l’impulsivité dans la relation entre surpoids et TDAH chez l’enfant : étude exploratoire des caractéristiques cliniques, neuropsychologiques et neurobiochimiques

ObjectivesRelationship between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and obesity in adults and children had previously been established in research studies. Brain imaging studies pointed out the important role of the prefrontal region in both ADHD and obesity. However, the underlying link between ADHD and obesity is not well understood. The hypothesis that impulsivity could play a role has been explored in clinical studies of ADHD and Binge Eating Disorders or Loss of Control Eating, with contradictory results. Our study aims to compare children with ADHD and obesity to children with ADHD and normal weight. We propose to compare these two populations with clinical, neuropsychological and brain spectroscopy investigation, focusing specifically on impulsivity items. MethodTen children presenting overweight or obesity were selected from a larger population of children with ADHD (5–12y) and paired with regard to gender and age with ten children with ADHD and normal weight from the same population. Conners Rating scales version parents (CPRS) and teachers (CTRS), Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II (CPT-II), and Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) metabolites in five regions of interest (left and right prefrontal, left and right striatal and left cerebellum regions) were measured for all the children. For MRS, ratio to creatinine levels of following metabolites were measured: glycerophosphocholine+phosphocholine/creatinine (GPC+PCh/Cr), glutamate+glutamine (Glu+Gln/Cr), myoinositol (mI/Cr) et N-acétylaspartate+N-acétylaspartylglutamate (NAA+NAAG/Cr). ResultsHyperactivity/Impusivity and Conners Global Index (CGI) subscales of Conners rating scales showed a higher rate of impulsivity in children with ADHD and obesity as compared to children with ADHD and normal weight. Neuropsychological results were comparable in the two groups. Finally, MRS showed a higher GPC+PCh/Cr ratio in right prefrontal cortex in children with ADHD and obesity as compared to children with ADHD and normal weight. ConclusionsOur results are concordant with the hypothesis that impulsivity could be the link between obesity and ADHD in a population of children with ADHD. The right prefrontal regions seem to be areas of interests that need more research in the study of the link between obesity and ADHD.

Nuclear neurotransmitter molecular imaging of autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disabilities characterized by marked deficits in social communication and interaction, including limited and repetitive patterns of behavior. We selected key nuclear neurotransmitter molecular imaging reports of ASD by combining “autism” AND “positron” AND “dopamine” OR “serotonin” OR “glutamate” OR “GABA” utilizing databases as follows: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. This review reports important findings in ASD utilizing positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). We studied major neurotransmitter systems, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Dopamine neurotransmission was decreased in the anterior medial prefrontal cortex in children with autism. Dopamine transporter was increased in the orbital frontal cortex of adults with ASD and decreased in the striatum of children with ASD. Decreased tryptophan metabolism, an estimate of serotonin synthesis, (A) in left frontal cortex correlated with severe language impairment and (B) in the right frontal cortex correlated with left and mixed handedness. Although not confirmed by some investigators, serotonin transporter was decreased in the cingulate, the medial frontal cortex, the midbrain, and the temporal lobes. Serotonin receptors were decreased in the thalamus in individuals with ASD and in the cortices of parents of children with ASD. Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR 5 ) was increased in the post-central gyrus and the cerebellum of men with autism. PET studies for GABA did not differentiate people with ASD from controls. The increasing incidence of ASD and the inconsistent findings of different nuclear molecular imaging studies are evidence for the urgent need for further investigations utilizing nuclear molecular imaging to identify the key neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of ASD.

Effects of the 2-Repeat Allele of the DRD4 Gene on Neural Networks Associated With the Prefrontal Cortex in Children With ADHD.

Objective: Genetic variation, especially polymorphism of the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4), has been linked to deficits in self-regulation and executive functions and to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and is related to the structural and functional integrity of the default mode network (DMN), the executive control network (ECN) and the sensorimotor network (SMN). The aim of this study was to explore the effects of the 2-repeat allele of the DRD4 gene on brain network connectivity and behaviors in children with ADHD.Methods: Using independent component analysis (ICA) and dimension analyses, we examined resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data obtained from 52 Asian medicine-naive children with ADHD (33 2-repeat absent and 19 2-repeat present).Results: We found that individuals with 2-repeat absent demonstrated increased within-network connectivity in the right precuneus of the DMN, the right middle frontal gyrus (MFG) of the SMN compared with individuals with 2-repeat present. Within the ECN, 2-repeat absent showed decreased within-network connectivity in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the left anterior cingulate cortex. A deeper study found that connectivity strength of the left IFG was directly proportional to the Stroop reaction time in 2-repeat absent group, and as well as the right MFG in 2-repeat present group.Conclusion: Polymorphisms of the DRD4 gene, specifically 2-repeat allele, had effects on the ECN, the SMN and the DMN, especially in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) circles. ADHD children with DRD4 2-repeat allele have aberrant resting-state within-network connectivity patterns in the left IFG and the right MFG related to dysfunction in inattention symptom. This study provided novel insights into the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of DRD4 2-repeat allele on ADHD.

Prenatal manganese exposure and intrinsic functional connectivity of emotional brain areas in children

Manganese (Mn) is an essential trace metal that is neurotoxic at high levels of exposure. Disruption of brain maturation processes during the prenatal period may have lasting consequences. During this critical period, the developing human brain is uniquely vulnerable to exposure to environmental toxicants such as Mn, and prenatal Mn exposure has been associated with changes in brain areas involved in emotion processing and regulation. The goal of the present pilot study was to examine whether prenatal Mn exposure is associated with changes in the intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) of the brain in childhood, focusing on changes in emotional brain areas. We selected 15 subjects (age 6–7 years) from an ongoing longitudinal birth cohort study to participate in a resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Prenatal Mn exposure was determined from maternal blood collected during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy. We used seed-based correlation analyses and independent component analyses to examine whether prenatal Mn exposure was associated with the iFC of the brain in children. We found that the right globus pallidus showed reduced iFC with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex in children who were exposed to higher prenatal Mn levels, after controlling for sociodemographic confounders (SES, maternal education, child sex, home environment support) and environmental confounders (prenatal lead exposure and air pollution). These findings suggest that prenatal Mn exposure is associated with reduced iFC of brain areas involved in emotion processing and regulation in children. Future studies should investigate whether this reduced iFC mediates the association between prenatal Mn exposure and emotional dysfunction in childhood.

The Developmental Course of Sleep Disturbances Across Childhood Relates to Brain Morphology at Age 7: The Generation R Study.

Little is known about the impact of sleep disturbances on the structural properties of the developing brain. This study explored associations between childhood sleep disturbances and brain morphology at 7 years. Mothers from the Generation R cohort reported sleep disturbances in 720 children at ages 2 months, 1.5, 2, 3, and 6 years. T1-weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images were used to assess brain structure at 7 years. Associations of sleep disturbances at each age and of sleep disturbance trajectories with brain volumes (total brain volume, cortical and subcortical grey matter, white matter) were tested with linear regressions. To assess regional differences, sleep disturbance trajectories were tested as determinants for cortical thickness in whole-brain analyses. Sleep disturbances followed a declining trend from toddlerhood onwards. Infant sleep was not associated with brain morphology at age 7. Per SD sleep disturbances (one frequent symptom or two less frequent symptoms) at 2 and 3 years of age, children had -6.3 (-11.7 to -0.8) cm3 and -6.4 (-11.7 to -1.7) cm3 smaller grey matter volumes, respectively. Sleep disturbances at age 6 years were associated with global brain morphology (grey matter: -7.3 (-12.1 to -2.6), p value = .01). Consistently, trajectory analyses showed that more adverse developmental course of childhood sleep disturbances are associated with smaller grey matter volumes and thinner dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Sleep disturbances from age 2 years onwards are associated with smaller grey matter volumes. Thinner prefrontal cortex in children with adverse sleep disturbance trajectories may reflect effects of sleep disturbances on brain maturation.

Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: What is the evidence?

Public opinion and media coverage suggest that there are benefits of long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) intake on brain functioning. However, it is an open question whether this is indeed the case. Therefore, we reviewed the evidence for effects of ω-3 LC-PUFA on human brain morphology and function. We included studies on (1) naturalistic long-term ω-3 LC-PUFA intake during life (2) the effects of short-term ω-3 LC-PUFA supplementation in healthy subjects and (3) the effects of ω-3 LC-PUFA supplementation as alternative or add-on treatment for psychiatric or neurological disorders. To date, 24 studies have been published on the effect of ω-3 LC-PUFA on brain function and structure. Findings from naturalistic studies and clinical trials in healthy individuals indicate that ω-3 LC-PUFA intake may be associated with increased functional activation of the prefrontal cortex in children, and greater gray matter volume and white matter integrity during aging. However, most naturalistic studies were cross-sectional or did not find any effect on cognition. As such, it is hard to estimate the magnitude of any beneficial effects. Furthermore, there is only limited evidence to support that ω-3 LC-PUFA supplementation is beneficial in brain disorders, such as Alzheimer׳s Disease, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder and schizophrenia. Overall, the literature suggests that sensitivity to supplementation may vary over development, and as a consequence of brain disorders. The biological mechanisms underlying any (beneficial) effects ω-3 LC-PUFAs on the brain are currently unknown and need to be investigated.

Cortical thickness differences in the prefrontal cortex in children and adolescents with ADHD in relation to dopamine transporter (DAT1) genotype

Several lines of evidence suggest that the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) plays a crucial role in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Concretely, recent data indicate that the 10-repeat (10R) DAT1 allele may mediate neuropsychological functioning, response to methylphenidate, and even brain function and structure in children with ADHD. This study aimed to investigate the influence of 10R DAT1 on thickness of the prefrontal cortex in children and adolescents with ADHD. To this end, brain magnetic resonance images were acquired from 33 patients with homozygosity for the 10R allele and 30 patients with a single copy or no copy of the allele. The prefrontal cortex of each MRI scan was automatically parceled into regions of interest (ROIs) based on Brodmann areas (BA). The two groups were matched for age, gender, IQ, ADHD subtype, symptom severity, comorbidity and medication status. However, patients with two copies of the 10R allele exhibited significantly decreased cortical thickness in right BA 46 relative to patients with one or fewer copies of the allele. No other prefrontal ROI differed significantly between the two groups. Present findings suggest that cortical thickness of right lateral prefrontal cortex (BA 46) is influenced by the presence of the DAT1 10 repeat allele in children and adolescents with ADHD.

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) neurofeedback as a treatment for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-a pilot study.

In this pilot study near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) neurofeedback was investigated as a new method for the treatment of Attention Deficit-/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Oxygenated hemoglobin in the prefrontal cortex of children with ADHD was measured and fed back. 12 sessions of NIRS-neurofeedback were compared to the intermediate outcome after 12 sessions of EEG-neurofeedback (slow cortical potentials, SCP) and 12 sessions of EMG-feedback (muscular activity of left and right musculus supraspinatus). The task was either to increase or decrease hemodynamic activity in the prefrontal cortex (NIRS), to produce positive or negative shifts of SCP (EEG) or to increase or decrease muscular activity (EMG). In each group nine children with ADHD, aged 7–10 years, took part. Changes in parents’ ratings of ADHD symptoms were assessed before and after the 12 sessions and compared within and between groups. For the NIRS-group additional teachers’ ratings of ADHD symptoms, parents’ and teachers’ ratings of associated behavioral symptoms, childrens’ self reports on quality of life and a computer based attention task were conducted before, 4 weeks and 6 months after training. As primary outcome, ADHD symptoms decreased significantly 4 weeks and 6 months after the NIRS training, according to parents’ ratings. In teachers’ ratings of ADHD symptoms there was a significant reduction 4 weeks after the training. The performance in the computer based attention test improved significantly. Within-group comparisons after 12 sessions of NIRS-, EEG- and EMG-training revealed a significant reduction in ADHD symptoms in the NIRS-group and a trend for EEG- and EMG-groups. No significant differences for symptom reduction were found between the groups. Despite the limitations of small groups and the comparison of a completed with two uncompleted interventions, the results of this pilot study are promising. NIRS-neurofeedback could be a time-effective treatment for ADHD and an interesting new option to consider in the treatment of ADHD.

Neuron Number and Size in Prefrontal Cortex of Children With Autism

Neuron Number and Size in Prefrontal Cortex of Children With Autism

Regulation of brain activity in the fusiform face and parahippocampal place areas in 7–11-year-old children

Developmental studies have demonstrated that cognitive processes such as attention, suppression of interference and memory develop throughout childhood and adolescence. However, little is currently known about the development of top-down control mechanisms and their influence on cognitive performance. In the present study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate modulation of activity in the ventral visual cortex in healthy 7–11-year-old children and young adults. The participants performed tasks that required attention to either face (Fs task) or scene (Sf task) images while trying to ignore distracting scene or face images, respectively. A face-selective area in the fusiform gyrus (fusiform face area, FFA) and an area responding preferentially to scene images in the parahippocampal gyrus (parahippocampal place area, PPA) were defined using functional localizers. Children responded slower and less accurately in the tasks than adults. In children, the right FFA was less selective to face images and regulation of activity between the Fs and Sf tasks was weaker compared to adults. In the PPA, selectivity to scenes and regulation of activity, there according to the task demands were comparable between children and adults. During the tasks, children activated prefrontal cortical areas including the middle (MFG) and superior (SFG) frontal gyrus more than adults. Functional connectivity between the right FFA and left MFG was stronger in adults than children in the Fs task. Children, on the other hand, had stronger functional connectivity than adults in the Sf task between the right FFA and right PPA and between right MFG and medial SFG. There were no group differences in the functional connectivity between the PPA and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Together the results suggest that, in 7–11-year-old children, the FFA is still immature, whereas the selectivity to scenes and regulation of activity in the PPA is comparable to adults. The results also indicated functional immaturity of the PFC in children compared to adults and weaker connectivity between the PFC and the rFFA, explaining the weaker regulation of activity in the rFFA between the Fs and Sf tasks.

Response Inhibition Impairment in High Functioning Autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Data

BackgroundResponse inhibition, an important domain of executive function (EF), involves the ability to suppress irrelevant or interfering information and impulses. Previous studies have shown impairment of response inhibition in high functioning autism (HFA) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but more recent findings have been inconsistent. To date, almost no studies have been conducted using functional imaging techniques to directly compare inhibitory control between children with HFA and those with ADHD.MethodNineteen children with HFA, 16 age- and intelligence quotient (IQ)-matched children with ADHD, and 16 typically developing (TD) children were imaged using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) while performing Go/No-go and Stroop tasks.ResultsCompared with the TD group, children in both the HFA and ADHD groups took more time to respond during the No-go blocks, with reaction time longest for HFA and shortest for TD. Children in the HFA and ADHD groups also made a greater number of reaction errors in the No-go blocks than those in the TD group. During the Stroop task, there were no significant differences between these three groups in reaction time and omission errors. Both the HFA and ADHD groups showed a higher level of inactivation in the right prefrontal cortex (PFC) during the No-go blocks, relative to the TD group. However, no significant differences were found between groups in the levels of oxyhemoglobin concentration in the PFC during the Stroop task.ConclusionFunctional brain imaging using NIRS showed reduced activation in the right PFC in children with HFA or ADHD during an inhibition task, indicating that inhibitory dysfunction is a shared feature of both HFA and ADHD.

Visual processing and learning disorders

Many children are seen by ophthalmologists because of scholastic difficulties in school initially attributed to eyesight when, in fact, the problem often is a result of a disorder of the brain processing vision. A number of neuropsychological conditions predisposing and affecting children with learning disorders will be described. Visual processing is the main brain function allowing normal perception of what is being viewed. Ophthalmologists as well as patients must realize that with normal 20/20 eyesight interpretation of what is seen may be dysfunctional because of faulty brain processing of that which is seen by normal eyes. Abnormal Visual Processing as well as auditory processing disorders eventually lead directly to learning disorders in children and young adults. New Clinical Practice Guidelines for the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of children with attention deficit disorder (ADD)/attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) have been established by the American Academy of Pediatrics. An overgrowth of neurons in the prefrontal cortex of children with autism has recently been discovered. Six out of 1000 children have been reported as having Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD), which is another name for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). A number of alternative treatments for ASD have recently been published. The families of autistic children have increased emotional and financial burdens, often affecting the workplace. Recent neuropsychology discoveries have helped in the prevention, evaluation and treatment of children with visual processing and learning disorders. Quality-of-life and educational efficiency therefore can be improved.