Preening Activity Research Articles

Behaviors associated with formalin-induced pain in the Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

The present study aimed to investigate behaviors associated with formalin-induced nociception in the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). The tarsometatarsus region of the male quail's foot (shank) was injected with 40µl of formalin (0.3, 0.6, and 0.9%) solutions or normal saline. Two distinct nociceptive behaviors that is injected foot lifting and flinching/shaking behaviors were recorded over 45 minutes. Also, unstimulated preening, eye closing, and chamber wall pecking behaviors were recorded during the observation period. Subcutaneous injection of formalin 0.6 and 0.9% significantly increased the foot lifting activity in the 0-5 minutes (acute phase) and 15-45 minutes (inflammatory phase) after administration. But the injection of formalin 0.3% significantly increased foot lifting activity only in the acute phase. In the other recorded behaviors, we did not find this biphasic time course pattern. All formalin concentrations induced significant foot flinching/shaking activity only in the acute phase. Subcutaneous injection of formalin 0.9% but not 0.6 and 0.3% significantly increased the duration of eye closure behavior between 20-45 minutes after administration. Injection of all formalin concentrations caused a significant decrease in the unstimulated preening activity between the period of 10 to 45 minutes after administration. Injection of all formalin concentrations caused a significant decrease in the observation chamber wall pecking activity between the period 30 to 45 minutes after administration. These results suggest that the quail formalin test can be considered a relevant, sensitive, and specific technique that helps researchers to use it in the determination of the neurobiology and pharmacology of nociception in the avian species.

Effect of morphine and ibuprofen on nociceptive behavior, preening and motor activity following tonic chemical pain in the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)

ObjectiveTo establish a tonic chemical model of pain in quail and evaluate the efficacy of opioid and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Study designA randomized, blinded, experimental study design. AnimalsA total of 120 male Japanese quail, aged 7 weeks. MethodsA formalin solution (0.3%, 0.6% and 0.9%; total volume of 40 μL) was injected subcutaneously (SC) into the medial aspect of the right metatarsus (shank). Foot lift and preening activities were recorded for 45 minutes following injection of formalin and scored by an investigator blinded to the treatment. An open field test was used to evaluate motor activity. Treatments included SC saline, SC morphine (1.25, 2.5 and 5 mg kg–1) and oral ibuprofen (5 and 10 mg kg–1). The treatment effect was analyzed by one-way anova and the time course effect analyzed using repeated measures anova, both followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (p < 0.05). ResultsAll formalin concentrations induced significant foot lifting activity in the first phase (0–5 minutes), whereas only 0.6% and 0.9% formalin elicited responses in both the first and second (25–45 minutes) phases. Neither morphine nor ibuprofen affected phase 1 of the formalin test. Morphine (2.5 and 5 mg kg–1) and ibuprofen (5 and 10 mg kg–1) significantly reduced foot lift responses. Preening activity was significantly decreased following injection of 0.6% and 0.9% formalin. Preening was normalized with ibuprofen, but not with morphine. Morphine, but not ibuprofen, reduced quail activity. Conclusion and clinical relevanceThese results suggest that the formalin test was a reliable method for assessing tonic pain behavior in quail. The acute phase of the formalin test was not affected by morphine or ibuprofen. Although ibuprofen reduced the pain response in phase 2, the analgesic effects of morphine were not conclusive because morphine appeared to induce sedation.

Sex-related and spatial variation in trace elements in feathers of the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) from different coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula

This study investigated the sex-related and spatial variation in trace elements concentrations in feathers of the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) inhabiting different coastal locations in the Iberian Peninsula. Feathers were sampled in a total of 50 breeding birds from 7 different locations: 3 on the Mediterranean coast (n=18), 1 on the Atlantic coast of Andalusia (n=9) and 3 on the NW Atlantic coast (n=23). The feathers were analyzed to determine the concentrations of Al, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, Hg and Pb. All of the trace elements were present at detectable concentrations, and the mean concentrations of Al, Zn and Cu were highest of those considered. The coastal section had a significant effect on 5 elements (Mn, Cu, As, Cd and Pb). The mean concentrations of almost all of the trace elements were highest in the birds from Andalusia, intermediate in the birds from the Mediterranean area and, in general, lowest in the birds from the NW Atlantic coast. Females showed significant higher Mn concentrations and high levels of exogenous elements (Al and As) in contrast with males. Less preening activity during the day of female birds, when they are occupied in incubating eggs, could favour higher concentrations of exogenous trace elements. The high levels of several trace elements observed in the samples from Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Andalusia may pose a serious threat to these populations.

The meaning of purely structural colour: white plumage reflectance indicates feather condition

White plumage areas are widespread among birds but the mechanisms generating individual differences in white feather reflectance are poorly known. Additionally, the proximate mechanisms of within‐season feather colour changes in general are also poorly known. Here we explored within‐individual changes in macrostructure and reflectance of the white wing‐patch of female Collared Flycatchers Ficedula albicollis using data from three stages within a breeding season. Changes in brightness and UV chroma were related to changes in the neatness and size of reflective surfaces, respectively. This suggests that white feather reflectance traits may act as indicators of feather intactness and preening activity.

Effect of Prebiotic on the Behavioural Patterns, Performance, Carcass Characteristics, Antibody Titer and Some Blood Parameters of Mule Ducks

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation of prebiotic on behavioural patterns performance and some blood parameters of ducks. A total of forty-eight 15 days-aged ducks (Mule) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments containing 0 (Control), 1.5 g/ kg and 3.0 g/kg prebiotic, respectively. The results indicated that using prebiotic as a feed additive at a dose of 1.5 g/kg effect on duck movement activities as it increased walking and standing activities, while it reduced the resting behavioural activities. Further, regarding the ingestive behaviour, both 1.5 and 3.0 g/kg prebiotic addition increased the feeding activities, while, only adding 3.0 g/kg prebiotic increased the drinking activities in comparison to the control. Moreover, the result indicated that prebiotic did not affect preening activities. Moreover, the inclusion of prebiotic at 1.5 or 3.0 g/kg caused numerical improvement in all measured performance parameters (i.e. body weight, weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, caloric conversion ratio, and performance index). The 3.0 g/kg level of prebiotic induced significant decreased in serum cholesterol and both 1.5 and 3.0 g/kg prebiotic increased the HI titer of Avian influenza vaccine. In conclusion, prebiotic supplementations up to 0.30 g/kg diet show a non-significant positive effect on duck growth performance. However, the behavioural and haematological responses of duck to prebiotic supplementation are needed to be carefully considered.

Sex Differences in Preening Behaviour in the White StorkCiconia ciconia

ABSTRACT Preening is a type of feather maintenance behaviour in birds, that fulfils an important role in grooming. Preening may also be important for signalling quality of mates. Therefore we hypothesized that the frequency of preening may be related to sex and population density of White Stork Ciconia ciconia. We observed preening activity of 25 pairs in Western Poland at the beginning of incubation, when preening frequency is the highest. Birds were observed on the nest, because most preening behaviour occurs there. We found that being on the nest males spent proportionally more time on preening than females (on average 30% vs. 16%). Females spent more time preening when their mate was present at the nest. There was no significant relationship between preening frequency and indirect quality indicators (arrival date, laying date, hatching date, clutch size, brood size) nor between the distance to nearest neighbours and the time males and females spent on preening.

Coccidial infection does not influence preening behavior in American goldfinches.

Preening behavior in birds is important for the maintenance of thermoregulatory and ornamental functions of plumage. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that birds trade off time between plumage maintenance and other activities. However, the condition-dependent constraints of preening remain virtually unstudied. Here, we present the first experimental test of the hypothesis that intestinal parasite infection impairs preening activity. We studied male American goldfinches (Spinus tristis), a species with carotenoid-based plumage coloration. Following pre-alternate (spring) molt, we manipulated the health of males by infecting some birds with Isospora spp. coccidia and keeping others free of the infection. Although the goldfinches increased preening throughout the captive period, we found no significant effect of coccidial treatment on preening behavior. The effect of coccidia on plumage maintenance may be more pronounced under natural conditions where birds have limited access to food and engage in more activities that might limit time available for preening.

Diurnal activity budgeting of Large Whistling Teal Dendrocygna bicolor (Vieillot, 1816) (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in Deepor Beel wetlands, Assam, India

Diurnal activity budgets of the Large Whistling Teal Dendrocygna bicolor were quantified in Deepor Beel wetlands from March 2007 to January 2008. The study revealed that the Large Whistling Teal utilized 36.1% of time in resting, 37.1% in locomotion, 21.8% of diurnal time in feeding and 3.9% of diurnal time for preening activity. The teal spent <1% time in each, of alert and aggressive behaviours.

Assessing the diet of Amur Falcon Falco amurensis and Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni using stomach content analysis

The diets of Falco amurensis and F. naumanni were investigated by analysing the respective stomach contents of 64 and 22 individuals killed during a severe thunderstorm in December 2004. Interpretations of diet were made by considering (1) biomass of dietary items and (2) presence/absence of dietary items in the stomachs analysed. A single beetle (Coleoptera) species, cf. Heteronychus arator, made up the majority of stomach contents when using both methods. Other Coleopteran taxa did not comprise a significant proportion of the biomass in each stomach but were well represented in the stomachs of many individuals. Taxa less represented included Rodentia, Solifugae, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and other unidentified prey items. Although both F. amurensis and F. naumanni sometimes feed on birds, we believe that all feathers found in stomachs were ingested during preening activities or were accidentally introduced during excision. The presence of a single beetle species in the diet of both species demonstrates the importance of episodic and/or predictable arthropod irruptions as a food source for these two migrant falcon species. Similarity in the stomach contents of both species indicates that both may face similar threats with regards to pesticide exposure, habitat alteration and persecution in their austral non-breeding range.

Behavioural and electroencephalographic effects of systemic injections of 8-OH-DPAT in the pigeon ( Columba livia)

The effects of systemic injections of the 5HT 1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT on the spontaneous ingestive, maintenance, locomotor and sleep-like behaviours, and the sleep/waking-related hippocampal electrographic activity were investigated in pigeons. 8-OH-DPAT (0.06, 0.2, 0.6 or 2.0 mg/kg) was found to dose-dependently reduce food and water intake, acutely (in the first 3 h) and 24 h after treatment, during both low-activity morning hours (starting at 10:00 h) and high-activity evening hours (starting at 14:00 h). Automated 24 h records of food and water intake indicated that hypophagic effects can last up to 18 h after injection. Duration and incidence of sleep-like postures increased at all doses, in both morning and afternoon. These effects were associated with decreases in exploratory and preening activities. The 8-OH-DPAT-induced hypnogenic, hypophagic and hypodipsic effects tended to be more intense in the morning than in the afternoon-trials. Pretreatment with WAY 100635 (a 5-HT 1A antagonist; 0.6 mg/kg) eliminated all of these 8-OH-DPAT-induced effects. WAY 100635 failed to affect feeding when injected alone, but decreased frequency of sleep-like responses and increased the latency to the first sleep-like episode. Hippocampal EEG tracings after 8-OH-DPAT injections (0.6 or 2.0 mg/kg) indicated that the hypnogenic effects are associated with a specific increase in the frequency and duration of slow wave sleep. Power density analysis of the hippocampal EEG failed to show differences between 8-OH-DPAT-induced sleep and the sleep occurring after vehicle injections, indicating that it may be electrographically similar to diurnal sleep episodes in the pigeon. These data suggest that while 5-HT 1a receptor-mediated mechanisms play crucial roles in ingestive and sleep/waking behaviours in mammals and birds, their action upon these states shows substantial inter-taxon variance.

Daytime behavioural patterns of slow-growing chickens in deep-litter pens with perches

1. Behavioural patterns of 4 slow-growing local breeds of chickens in Taiwan and China, Taiwan Country chickens, Beijing Fatty chickens, pure Silkies, and upgraded commercial Silkies, were studied from 5 to 16 weeks of age as a reference of management for commercial production. 2. Fifteen males and 15 females of the same breed were housed in a pen. Every breed had 6 pens and 24 pens were studied. 3. Taiwan Country chickens displayed more aggressive, sexual and feather pecking behaviours, had less resting time, the fastest feeding rate and used perches more often. The fast-growing and heavy commercial Silkies had more feeding activity and less preening activity. They were also similar to the crested and docile Beijing Fatty chickens and had less stand/walking and more resting time. The pure Silky bantams showed much more foraging activity than the other breeds. 4. When males started to display more aggression and sexual behaviour, after 8–12 weeks of age, resting time for all birds started to decline and stand/walking increased. 5. These results could imply that different local breeds need different housing systems for the bird's welfare.

Interaction of Color and Photointensity on Preening Behavior and Ingestion of Spray-Applied Biologics

Previous research has demonstrated that increased photointensity near the time of spray application can increase preening activity and ingestion of spray-applied material and can enhance establishment of a competitive exclusion culture. In the present study, inclusion of selected colors had a marked effect on preening activity, with fluorescein or forest green combined with fluorescein causing the greatest increase in preening under conditions of constant lighting (92 FC before, during and after spray). Minimal effects of constant incandescent (80 FC) vs. fluorescent light (80 FC) source were observed, regardless of the color used. While addition of color improved preening activity under constant lighting, no additional increase in preening activity was observed when coloring was added to the spray applied under conditions of increasing photointensity. These data indicate that coloring of spray solutions for application to neonatal chicks can improve preening activity under conditions of constant lighting. However, optimization of photointensity near the time of spray application negates the need for addition of coloring and, in fact, increases preening activity to levels not observed due to color addition to the spray solution under conditions of constant lighting.

Ultrastructure and pathogenesis of Monodon baculovirus (Pm SNPV) in cultured larvae and natural brooders of Peneaus monodon

Monodon baculovirus (MBV) occurred in the hepatopancreas of cultured larvae, zoea, mysis and post-larvae and in wild caught juveniles, sub-adults and brood stocks of Penaeus monodon. Infected larvae exhibited lethargy and reduced feeding and preening activities while infected juveniles, sub-adults and brooders exhibited normal behaviour. MBV-infected hepatopancreatic cells exhibited a 300% volume increase in the hypertrophied nuclei, which contained eosinophilic, spherical, intranuclear occlusion bodies. At the apical cell surface, the number of microvilli were greatly reduced by cytolysis. The cytoplasm contained numerous vacuoles and few mitochondria. Two types of occlusion bodies were observed. Type 1 comprised a paracrystalline array of polyhedrin sub-units with a lattice spacing of 5–7 nm, with numerous occluded virions and a few non-occluded virions in the periphery within a double envelope measuring 267±2 nm long and 78±3 nm wide. Type 2 occlusion bodies consisted of non-crystalline, granulin-like sub-units each measuring 12 nm in diameter and contained mostly non-occluded virions measuring 326±4 nm long and 73±1 nm wide. In the zoea, mysis and post-larvae, the average infection rates for MBV were 28%±2%, 57%±3% and 91%±1%, respectively. Mortality rates were greater in the infected than in the uninfected post-larvae, at 81%±0% and 11%±0%, respectively. The mortality rate in MBV infected zoea and mysis was 23%±3% and 49%±2%, respectively, while in the uninfected larvae, it was 5%±0% and 8%±0%, respectively. The mortality rate for the infected and uninfected nauplii was similar at 3%±0%. In the brood stocks, the infection rate was 21%±1%, while in the juveniles and sub-adults, it was lower at 4%±0% and 5%±1%. MBV infected larvae harboured 10 times more bacteria than uninfected larvae.

White spot baculovirus syndrome in the Indian shrimp Penaeus monodon and P. indicus

Sporadic occurrences of white spot baculovirus (WSBV) infections have been reported in shrimp farms throughout the maritime states of India. WSBV presents as a reddish discolouration with white spots on the exoskeleton and epidermis with muscle opacity. Onset of the disease is extremely rapid with mass mortalities. Infected juveniles and sub-adults of Penaeus indicus and P. monodon become lethargic surface frequently, exhibit loss of balance, with reduced feeding and preening activities. The nuclei of WSBV-infected epithelial (hypodermal), septal and secretory cells of the gill filaments exhibit basophilic hypertrophied nuclei with a reduced cytoplasmic volume. Massive tissue disintegration occurred in the ectodermal and mesodermal tissues. The electron-dense nucleoplasm of the gill epithelial cells is mostly replaced with virions. Electron microscopic examination revealed the presence of double-enveloped, non-occluded, rod-shaped virions with a tube-like or branched extension and empty capsids. The numbers of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi were also reduced, as were the numbers of secretory or storage vesicles. WSBV is considered to be the main causative agent responsible for mass mortalities of juveniles and sub-adults in the cultured Indian penaeid shrimp, P. monodon and P. indicus. WSBV is highly pathogenic and readily transmitted from diseased shrimp to healthy susceptible shrimp via, contaminated water, faeces and by scavenging on dead infected shrimp. It may affect all stages of shrimp. The spread of the disease from cultured to natural systems and vice versa cannot be dismissed.

Dermatology of raptors: A review

Dermatological problems in raptors are not as common as they are in other types of birds. Bumblefoot, broken feathers, stress bars, frost bite, dry feet, and retained talon sheaths are rarely observed in wild raptors. Some self-limiting dermatopathies such as pox virus infection may become more severe in the unnatural stress of captivity. Ectoparasites are common inhabitants of raptors but generally are kept in low numbers by normal preening activity. If the raptor is debilitated and preening is reduced, ectoparasite population increases may exacerbate the bird's debility. These problems and others are addressed in this article with attention to pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Abnormal Preening Activity?

Abnormal Preening Activity?

The preening activity of swallows, Hirundo rustica, in relation to experimentally manipulated loads of haematophagous mites

Whether differences in preening activity among breeding swallows might be a reliable predictor of infection rates by the haematophagous mite Ornithonyssus bursa was tested by recording preening during an experimental manipulation of mite population density. Mite populations of newly built nests were either decreased by spraying with a pesticide, or increased by inoculation with ca 50 mites, while other nests were kept as controls. Adult swallows did not alter their preening rates in relation to experimental treatment despite the fact that the experimental treatments strongly affected mite densities. Nestlings raised in nests inoculated with mites preened much more than did control nestlings, which preened more than did nestlings from sprayed nests. Individual swallows had consistent preening rates throughout the breeding season. Male swallows preened more than females, and male preening activity was strongly positively correlated with that of their mates. Swallows preening much during their first clutches maintained a high preening frequency during their second clutch, although there was a general seasonal decrease in preening rates. Swallows rearing two broods preened more than did pairs rearing only a single brood.

Effects of Patagial Tags on Laying Date and Egg Size in Common Eiders

We examined the effects of patagial tags on common eiders (Somateria mollissima) by comparing laying date, clutch size, and egg size of the same females in 2 breeding seasons, before tagging (1987) and after the birds had carried tags for 1 year (1988). Similar data were obtained from unmarked birds used as controls in both years. Clutch size of tagged birds did not differ from controls (P > 0.05), but tagged birds laid eggs later (P < 0.001) and produced smaller eggs (P < 0.05) in 1988 than in 1987. The egg size of control females was larger (P < 0.001) during 1988. We suggest that patagial tags affect a female's ability to accumulate body reserves before breeding by decreasing feeding time, increasing preening activity, and/ or increasing energy costs of diving. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 54(2):216-218 Recognizing individual birds is necessary in behavioral studies of waterfowl. Colored leg bands are not useful because they are rarely visible. Since Anderson (1963) described patagial tags, they have been commonly used in studies of behavior and movements of individual waterfowl and other birds (Marion and Shamis 1977). The advantages of patagial tags are high visibility and long retention (Southern 1971, Marion and Shamis 1977, Kochert et al. 1983). However, several researchers reported detrimental effects of patagial tags. For example, skin and feather abrasion occurred in prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) (Kochert et al. 1983), herring gulls (Larus argentatus) (Mudge and Fern 1978), and ring-billed gulls (L. delawarensis) (Southern 1971). In ring-billed gulls, tags also interfered with pairing, delayed arrival at the colony, and postponed hatching (Southern and Southern 1985). Mortality rates of American kestrels (Falco sparverius) (Bolen and Dreden 1980) and willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) (Howe 1980) possibly increased as a result of tagging. Szymczak and Ringelman (1986) reported changes in habitat use by wing-tagged mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) that resulted in increased mortality from hunting. Patagial tags have been used in several studies of common eiders (e.g., Gorman and Milne 1972, Munro and Bedard 1977, Schmutz et al. 1982), but only Anderson (1963) reported the possible effects of these markers. We evaluated the effects of patagial tags on common eiders by comparing laying date, clutch size, and egg size of individuals in the breeding season before they were marked with that of the same birds after they had carried patagial tags for 1 year. During both seasons, we also obtained similar data on control birds, which were either legbanded or not marked at all. We thank T. B. Moum, H. S. Ludvigsen, J. H. Heggas, F. Rikardsen, and H. M. Iversen for help in the field, and D. G. Jorde, R. T. Barrett, and W. Vader for reviewing the manuscript. We also thank R. T. Barrett and J. Marks for correcting the English. Funding was by grants from the Nansen Foundation and The Wildlife Fund, Troms County (to KEE). STUDY AREA AND METHODS The fieldwork was conducted at an eider colony (about 400 breeding pairs) on Grindoya, a small island (0.65 km2) near Tromso, northern Norway (69040'N, 18015'E) in 1987 and 1988. The island is covered by a mixture of woodland (50%), heaths, bogs, and fens. The dominant tree was mountain birch (Betula pubescens) with lower canopies of common juniper (Juniperus communis), willow (Salix spp.), crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum), and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus). Egg laying started in mid-May, and most of the birds left the colony in late June. We searched the island for nests at the start of the breeding season, and we used a hand net to catch females on their nests during late incubation. In 1987, 84 females were caught and marked with numbered patagial tags and steel leg bands. Patagial tags were 0.8 x 60.0 x 40.0 mm Darvic, PVC plastic. Tags were attached using a 30-mm nylon pin through the patagial membrane and a 10-mm nylon washer in each end and were fixed in position by melting the nylon pin. Of 84 marked females, 25 were found on a

Time-Activity Budgets of Mottled Ducks in Louisiana in Winter

I related time-activity budgets of mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula) in coastal southwestern Louisiana from September-February 1981-82 to sex, pair status, and environmental factors. Mottled ducks spent 43% of their time feeding, 36% resting, 9% preening, 7% alert, 6% locomoting, and <1% each in courtship and agonistic activities. Paired and unpaired ducks spent similar amounts of time feeding (P = 0.937). Feeding rates were lowest during October-December. Mottled ducks fed more at night than during the day (P < 0.01). Pairs spent more time resting than unpaired ducks (P < 0.001). Time spent resting was similar among months during winter and between night and day (P = 0.359). Unpaired ducks spent more time locomoting (P < 0.01) and alert (P < 0.01) than pairs. Preening, alert, and locomotor activities were observed less often at night than day and occurred at similar rates each month throughout winter. Courtship and agonistic activities were most common during September-December. By December, 90% of females were paired. Activity patterns of mottled ducks, which breed in a semitropical region, were similar to ducks wintering in Louisiana and breeding in more temperate regions. Because nearly all (95%) foraging by mottled ducks occurred in water depths <15 cm, management should provide shallow-water wetlands with abundant plant and animal foods. Deeper, open-water areas should be provided for loafing habitat and escape from predators. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):711-718 The mottled duck is 1 of 5 mallard-like ducks found in North America (Johnsgard 1961). Mottled ducks inhabit the Gulf coast region from Laguna de Tamiahua south of Tampico, Mexico, north to the Pearl River in Mississippi and are found in greatest numbers in Louisiana and Texas (Stutzenbaker 1984). Krapu (1981) suggested that condition of mallards (A. platyrhynchos) during winter may influence subsequent breeding success. Because mottled ducks are nonmigratory, habitat management programs designed to benefit these birds in winter may directly affect the number of birds breeding in and using the management area in the future. Recent surveys indicated that mottled duck numbers declined by about 50% during the past decade (Stutzenbaker 1984). Intensive management of winter habitat may be crucial for restoring numbers of mottled ducks to former levels. Social behaviors and habitat use of mottled ducks have been studied during the breeding (Allen 1980, Baker 1983, Paulus 1984) and nonbreeding (Weeks 1969, White and James 1978) periods. However, little is known of the importance of other activities during winter. I examined time-activity budgets of mottled ducks during winter and the influence of sex, social status, time of day and year, habitat use, and weather on time-activity budgets. These data were used to suggest management practices of benefit to mottled ducks. I am especially grateful to K. A. R. Paulus for her support during the study. I thank G. A. Baldassarre, M. K. Causey, T. Joanen, J. E. Kennamer, L. McNease, R. E. Mirarchi, G. R. Mullen, D. M. Richard, and L. C. Wit for their assistance in study design, data collection and valuation, and manuscript preparation. I appreciate the help of A. B. Ensminger, H. A. Bateman, Jr., and J. W. Tarver, for securing financial assistance, providing logistical support, and sharing information on the ecology of mottled ducks. Financial support was provided by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. STUDY AREA AND METHODS I observed mottled ducks in coastal southwestern Louisiana, primarily on Rockefeller State Wildlife Refuge (SWR). Rockefeller SWR, an area of 30,786 ha, was bounded on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and on the north by the Grand Chenier ridge complex (Wicker et al. 1983). A description of the area was presented in Paulus (1982). In addition, I observed mottled ducks on privately-owned fresh, intermediate, and brackish marshes within 35 km of Rockefeller SWR. Much of this area was impounded by dikes, spoil banks, or natural levees that modified natural water Present address: Innovative Research Services, P.O. Box 371, North Bend, WA 98045.

Daily Activity Patterns of South Polar and Brown Skuas Near Palmer Station, Antarctica

Abstract I conducted a behavioral study of sympatrically nesting South Polar (Catharacta maccormicki) and Brown skuas (C. lonnbergi) near Palmer Station, Antarctica. A total of 4,058 bird-hours of observations was made on eight South Polar, three Brown, and one mixed-species pair during the 1979-1980 and 1980-1981 austral summers. I used subsets of these data to analyze various aspects of skua activity patterns. South Polar Skuas exhibited maximum resting and minimum foraging activity during the twilight period around 2400. Brown Skuas appeared to rest and forage more randomly. Members of the mixed pair exhibited patterns similar to those of their respective species. Several hypotheses are suggested to account for species differences in activity patterns; most of these relate dietary differences and differential foraging abilities at low light levels. In both species, agonistic and preening activities occurred at all hours. South Polar Skuas, however, were most often observed bathing in early afternoon and preening in afternoon and twilight. Pairing activity showed no discernible relationship with time. Foraging bouts averaged 13 min for Brown Skuas with feeding territories and about 1 h for those without. South Polar Skuas averaged feeding trips of 2-3 h when the sea was open and over 7 h during heavy ice cover. The timing of an individual's activity was correlated negatively with that of its mate during incubation, brooding, and postbrooding. A nonbreeding pair and breeders that had suffered nest failure showed more positive correlations. Thus, individual activity patterns were shaped by reproductive priorities as well as by feeding ecology and light levels.