Solar Energy Prediction Research Articles

Novel hybrid data-driven models for enhanced renewable energy prediction

Global power grid management depends on accurate solar energy estimation, yet present prediction techniques frequently suffer from unreliability as a result of abnormalities in solar energy data. Solar radiation projections are affected by variables such as anticipated horizon length, meteorological classification, and power measuring techniques. Therefore, a Solar Wind Energy Prediction System (SWEPS) is proposed as a solution to these problems. It improves renewable energy projections by taking sun trajectories and atmospheric characteristics into account. In addition to using a variety of optimization methods and pre-processing techniques, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE), Least Absolute Shrinkage Selection Operator (LASSO), and recursive feature addition processes (RFA), complemented by a genetic algorithm for feature selection (GAFS). The SWEPS also makes use of sophisticated machine learning algorithms and Statistical Correlation Analysis (SCA) to find important connections. Neural Network Algorithms (NNA) and other metaheuristic techniques like Cuckoo Search Optimization (CSO), Social Spider Optimization (SSO), and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are adopted in this work to increase the predictability and accuracy of models. Utilizing the strengths of machine learning and deep learning techniques (Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Decision Trees, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN), and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM)) for robust forecasting, as well as meta-heuristic optimization techniques to fine-tune hyper-parameters and achieve near-optimal values and significantly improve model performance, are some of this work contributions to the development of a comprehensive prediction system.

Solar energy prediction with synergistic adversarial energy forecasting system (Solar-SAFS): Harnessing advanced hybrid techniques

An effective solar forecasting is an important part of managing and enhancing the effectiveness of solar power systems. The purpose of this paper is to develop a distinct and smart energy prediction system for solar PV systems. An efficient Solar Synergistic Adversarial Energy Forecasting System (Solar-SAFS) has been developed, which greatly enhances the precision and reliability of solar power predictions. It combines various deep learning methods including Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs), Variational Autoencoders (VAEs), Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to effectively understand spatial and time-related patterns in solar data. The strength and accuracy of this model are increased by using adversarial training, which makes sure it gives reliable predictions in different situations. For making the hyper parameters better and to increase model's effectiveness and efficiency, we are using Grey-Oystercatcher Hybrid Optimization (GOHO) technique. The Solar-SAFS is validated and tested with different data sets including Fingrid and DSK solar. It shows that this method gives better results compared to current deep learning models. Our findings suggest that Solar-SAFS improves the accuracy and stability of solar energy prediction by a large margin, offering an advanced solution for managing renewable energy resources. Moreover, it significantly helps to obtain better predictions for solar energy production, which is a crucial need in this sector. It also encourages more efficient and dependable forecasting methods for renewable energy sources like sunlight. Compared to existing deep learning models, the Solar-SAFS demonstrates significantly lower error rates across multiple performance metrics, including Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Squared Error (MSE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and Mean Bias Error (MBE).

Solar energy prediction in IoT system based optimized complex-valued spatio-temporal graph convolutional neural network

The accurate prediction of solar energy generation is significant for efficient energy management in Internet of Things (IoT) devices. However, current forecasting models frequently fail to account for the dynamic nature of weather conditions. Also, traditional methods often have limited accuracy and scalability. This paper proposes Solar Energy Prediction in IoT system based optimized Complex-Valued Spatio-Temporal Graph Convolutional Neural Network (SEP-CVSGCNN-IoT) to overcome the limitations of existing models. Initially, the data are collected from solar panel and weather forecast. The collected data is given to the pre-processing using Data-Adaptive Gaussian Average Filtering (DAGAF) to remove the unwanted data and replace missing data. The pre-processed data is given into Nutcracker Optimization (NCO) algorithm for selecting optimal features. Then, the selected features are given to the Complex-Valued Spatio-Temporal Graph Convolutional Neural Network (CVSGCNN) for solar energy prediction. Finally, Dipper Throated Optimization Algorithm (DTOA) is proposed to enhance the weight parameter of CVSGCNN classifier, which precisely predicts solar energy in IoT. The proposed SEP-CVSGCNN-IoT method provides 18.46%, 26.34, 15.69 and 20.84% higher accuracy and 18.24%, 23.77, 24.34 and 16.29% lower mean absolute error when analyzed with existing techniques, such as deep learning enhanced solar energy prediction and AI-driven IoT (DL-ESEF-AI), towards efficient renewable energy prediction using deep learning (TEE-REP-DL), a new deep learning method for effectual forecasting of short-term PV energy production (DL-EF-SPEP) and metaheuristic-dependent hyper parameter tuning for recurrent deep learning: application to the solar energy generation prediction (HT-RDL-PSEG) respectively.

Integrating Temporal and Feedforward Models for Solar Energy Prediction: LSTM and ANN Hybrid Approaches

The increasing reliance on renewable energy, particularly solar power, necessitates accurate models for predicting energy output to optimize storage and distribution systems. Traditional methods such as Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) offer unique strengths in forecasting photovoltaic (PV) system outputs. LSTM excels in capturing temporal dependencies in time-series data, while ANNs effectively model nonlinear relationships between variables. This study aims to develop and evaluate a hybrid LSTM-ANN model for improving the accuracy of PV energy output predictions, focusing on voltage, power, and irradiance. Using data collected from a solar-powered greenhouse in Talang Kemang, Indonesia, the model was trained and validated. The hybrid model demonstrated significant improvements in prediction accuracy. For voltage, the model achieved a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.1016 and a Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) of 0.1417, while irradiance predictions resulted in an MAE of 0.0895 and RMSE of 0.1149. Power predictions also yielded strong results, with an MAE of 0.1506 and RMSE of 0.1954. These results highlight the hybrid LSTM-ANN model's effectiveness in combining temporal and nonlinear data processing capabilities, leading to superior accuracy in predicting PV system outputs. This approach can enhance the reliability of energy forecasting models, enabling better integration of solar power into electrical grids. The model holds promise for broader applications in renewable energy systems, improving their efficiency and sustainability

Evaluation of Scikit-Learn Machine Learning Algorithms for Improving CMA-WSP v2.0 Solar Radiation Prediction

This article aims to evaluate the performance of solar radiation forecasts produced by CMA-WSP v2.0 (version 2 of the China Meteorological Administration Wind and Solar Energy Prediction System) and to explore the application of machine learning algorithms from the scikit-learn Python library to improve the solar radiation prediction made by the CMA-WSP v2.0. It is found that the performance of the solar radiation forecasting from the CMA-WSP v2.0 is closely related to the weather conditions, with notable diurnal fluctuations. The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) produced by the CMA-WSP v2.0 is approximately 74% between 11:00 and 13:00. However, the MAPE ranges from 193% to 242% at 07:00–08:00 and 17:00–18:00, which is greater than that observed at other daytime periods. The MAPE is relatively low (high) for both sunny and cloudy (overcast and rainy) conditions, with a high probability of an absolute percentage error below 25% (above 100%). The forecasts tend to underestimate (overestimate) the observed solar radiation in sunny and cloudy (overcast and rainy) conditions. By applying machine learning models (such as linear regression, decision trees, K-nearest neighbors, random forests regression, adaptive boosting, and gradient boosting regression) to revise the solar radiation forecasts, the MAPE produced by the CMA-WSP v2.0 is significantly reduced. The reduction in the MAPE is closely connected to the weather conditions. The models of K-nearest neighbors, random forests regression, and decision trees can reduce the MAPE in all weather conditions. The K-nearest neighbor model exhibits the most optimal performance among these models, particularly in rainy conditions. The random forest regression model demonstrates the second-best performance compared to that of the K-nearest neighbor model. The gradient boosting regression model has been observed to reduce the MAPE of the CMA-WSP v2.0 in all weather conditions except rainy. In contrast, the adaptive boosting (linear regression) model exhibited a diminished capacity to improve the CMA-WSP v2.0 solar radiation prediction, with a slight reduction in MAPE observed only in sunny (sunny and cloudy) conditions. In addition, the input feature selection has a considerable influence on the performance of the machine learning model. The incorporation of the time series data associated with the diurnal variation of solar radiation as an input feature can further improve the model’s performance.

Enhancing solar power forecasting with machine learning using principal component analysis and diverse statistical indicators

_Predicting solar energy is essential for efficient power system planning and the successful integration of renewable energy sources. This study aims to develop a framework for evaluating various machine learning models and feature selection strategies for solar energy prediction. The research applies six machine learning models, i.e., linear regression (LR), random forest (RF), neural networks (NN), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), gradient boosting (GB), and AdaBoost, to datasets from 2019 to 2021 collected at the Abiod Sid Cheikh solar station in southern Algeria. Various statistical indicators, including R2, RMSE, MAE, and Adj-R, were analyzed to assess model performance. The analysis revealed that R2 values ranged from 0.591 to 0.996 kW/m2, RMSE from 0.510 to 1.78 kW/m2, and MAE from 0.357 to 0.856 kW/m2 across different models. KNN and NN models showed significant errors, while GB and RF models demonstrated strong accuracies (RMS = 0.9). AdaBoost and LR excelled in real-time and short-term predictions, exhibiting an RMS of 0.99. This framework offers a comprehensive evaluation method for selecting the most suitable machine learning models and feature selection strategies for solar energy prediction. The findings can assist energy planners and engineers in choosing the appropriate models for accurate solar energy prediction, thereby enhancing the efficiency of power systems. Improved solar energy prediction can contribute to more reliable integration of renewable energy into power grids, supporting the transition to cleaner energy sources and reducing environmental impacts.

A comparative study of machine learning approaches for an accurate predictive modeling of solar energy generation

Solar energy prediction poses a challenging task that necessitates robust models and precise data to accurately forecast solar energy yield, especially in grid areas with high photovoltaic shares. Existing methods often rely on statistical or physical models, which have limitations in capturing the complex and non-linear relationships between weather variables and solar power generation. In this paper, we address this issue by comparing and evaluating different learning models, ranging from artificial neural networks (ANNs) and random forest models to long- and short-term memory (LSTM) networks, to predict the PV energy yield based on weather forecast data. A methodology has been developed to evaluate various models using real-world datasets from a large-scale industrial solar project, incorporating historical photovoltaic data, meteorological data, and solar irradiation data. The experimental results showed that the Random Forest Algorithm (RFR) consistently outperforms other algorithms, providing a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.06 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.15 when applied to historical meteorological datasets. The accuracy of the learning model was improved by combining meteorological data with a solar irradiation dataset to obtain an MAE of 0.03 % and an RMSE of 0.09 %. Validation analysis showed the proposed model is effective in both forecast accuracy and stability. The proposed methodology can provide valuable information to PV system operators, grid managers, and energy planners, facilitating the optimization of solar energy resources.

Addressing Data Scarcity in Solar Energy Prediction with Machine Learning and Augmentation Techniques

The accurate prediction of global horizontal irradiance (GHI) is crucial for optimizing solar power generation systems, particularly in mountainous areas with complex topography and unique microclimates. These regions face significant challenges due to limited reliable data and the dynamic nature of local weather conditions, which complicate accurate GHI measurement. The scarcity of precise data impedes the development of reliable solar energy prediction models, impacting both economic and environmental outcomes. To address these data scarcity challenges in solar energy prediction, this paper focuses on various locations in Europe and Asia Minor, predominantly in mountainous regions. Advanced machine learning techniques, including random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) regressors, are employed to effectively predict GHI. Additionally, optimizing training data distribution based on cloud opacity values and integrating synthetic data significantly enhance predictive accuracy, with R2 scores ranging from 0.91 to 0.97 across multiple locations. Furthermore, substantial reductions in root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and mean bias error (MBE) underscore the improved reliability of the predictions. Future research should refine synthetic data generation, optimize additional meteorological and environmental parameter integration, extend methodology to new regions, and test for predicting global tilted irradiance (GTI). The studies should expand training data considerations beyond cloud opacity, incorporating sky cover and sunshine duration to enhance prediction accuracy and reliability.

Performance Comparison of Random Forest Regressor and Support Vector Regression for Solar Energy Prediction

Performance Comparison of Random Forest Regressor and Support Vector Regression for Solar Energy Prediction

Interval-based solar photovoltaic energy predictions: A single-parameter approach with direct radiation focus

This study introduces a novel solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation forecasting method for residential installations, focusing on the direct radiation parameter. It has been rigorously compared against four established methods: Linear Regression (Alt1), Gradient Boosting (Alt2), Gradient Boosting with Lags (Alt3), and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Network (Alt4). Alt1 utilizes a simple linear equation, while Alt2 employs ensemble learning with decision trees. Alt3 leverages past 24-h PV generation data, and Alt4 utilizes specialized recurrent neural networks to address challenges of long-term dependencies in time series forecasting. The proposed method showed better performance in 2022, with a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.1490 kW and a Coverage Probability (CP) of 91.55 %, demonstrating its reliability and consistency in forecasting. Additionally, it obtained an Average Width of Intervals (AWI) of 0.3365 kW. Furthermore, the method significantly boosted solar energy utilization in a residential case, increasing average solar panel generation by 61.33 kWh/year and reducing the average price by 0.0188 €/kWh. These results highlight its effectiveness in enhancing self-consumption and cutting energy costs, presenting a precise and user-friendly forecasting tool for the solar energy sector. Particularly advantageous for residential use, it facilitates optimized solar energy utilization, contributing to the transition towards sustainable energy practices.

A Review of Time Series forecasting Techniques: Predicting Solar energy using AI and Statistics Techniques

The overuse of fossil fuels and their detrimental effects on the environment must be considered in the current electrical energy crisis scenario. This promotes sustainable development by encouraging the use of renewable resources. The overall capacity of the energy systems was enhanced by adding such unpredictable renewable energy sources; however, the design of these hybrid systems is extremely important, which is why many academics have come to trust this area. Normally, in order to advance sustainable growth in the current electrical market, renewable resources like solar energy have been integrated into existing grid systems, but such systems have faced numerous challenges in terms of energy management. Energy management in solar-integrated electric grid systems is challenging because of a number of factors, such as temperature, wind speed, air pressure, and precipitation, that have erratic and volatile properties, and all such factors impact solar energy generation. Further, due to this, the power grid may become unstable if all of these unstable variables are disregarded, as voltage fluctuations may arise. In order to handle all of this, solar energy prediction is necessary so that the required actions can be taken based on the data available for renewable energy. Hence this paper reviewed the articles on statistical and AI-based solar irradiance forecasting in order to provide classifications for employees based on the situation. Keywords: Solar Energy, Statistical and AI-based Solar Irradiance Forecasting.

Unveiling Genetic Reinforcement Learning (GRLA) and Hybrid Attention-Enhanced Gated Recurrent Unit with Random Forest (HAGRU-RF) for Energy-Efficient Containerized Data Centers Empowered by Solar Energy and AI

The adoption of renewable energy sources has seen a significant rise in recent years across various industrial sectors, with solar energy standing out due to its eco-friendly characteristics. This shift from conventional fossil fuels to solar power is particularly noteworthy in energy-intensive environments such as cloud data centers. These centers, which operate continuously to support active servers via virtual instances, present a critical opportunity for the integration of sustainable energy solutions. In this study, we introduce two innovative approaches that substantially advance data center energy management. Firstly, we introduce the Genetic Reinforcement Learning Algorithm (GRLA) for energy-efficient container placement, representing a pioneering approach in data center management. Secondly, we propose the Hybrid Attention-enhanced GRU with Random Forest (HAGRU-RF) model for accurate solar energy prediction. This model combines GRU neural networks with Random Forest algorithms to forecast solar energy production reliably. Our primary focus is to evaluate the feasibility of solar energy in meeting the energy demands of cloud data centers that utilize containerization for virtualization, thereby promoting green cloud computing. Leveraging a robust German photovoltaic energy dataset, our study demonstrates the effectiveness and adaptability of these techniques across diverse environmental contexts. Furthermore, comparative analysis against traditional methods highlights the superior performance of our models, affirming the potential of solar-powered data centers as a sustainable and environmentally responsible solution.

Analyzing meteorological parameters using Pearson correlation coefficient and implementing machine learning models for solar energy prediction in Kuching, Sarawak

Solar energy is one of the clean renewable energy sources that can offset the rising consumption of fossil fuels. However, the meteorological parameters, such as solar irradiance, ambient and solar module temperatures, relative humidity, etc., constantly change, and so does the solar power generation. Such variations cause instability in the power grid operation due to injecting an unpredicted amount of power. Hence, solar energy prediction models capable of learning from past weather data and predicting future energy generation are highly desired for grid operation and planning. The objective of this study is to determine the suitable meteorological parameters for the solar energy prediction model based on the Pearson correlation coefficient and to implement them in different machine learning models. It is found in this study that five meteorological parameters, namely Air temperature, cloud opacity, global tilted irradiance, relative humidity, and zenith angle, correlate highly with solar energy generation. Later, based on the correlations, four machine-learning models were implemented to predict the solar power for Kuching, Sarawak. The accuracy of the models is measured through standard matrices such as root mean square error, mean square error, mean absolute error, and R-squared value.

Estimating Solar Energy within the scope of environmental factors by the Neural Network algorithm

The efficiency of solar energy systems requires a complicated forecasting process due to the variability of sunlight and environmental conditions. Among environmental factors, cloud coverage (% range), temperature (0C), wind speed (Mph), and humidity (%) variables were taken into account in this study. Neural networks (NN), which are machine learning (ML) algorithms with a flexible structure that can define complex relationships and process large amounts of data for solar energy prediction, were used in this study. The NN algorithm showed a high performance, with mean square error (MSE), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and R-squared (R2) values calculated as 0.019, 0.139, 0.053, and 0.977, respectively. This study emphasized that solar energy predictions made with the NN algorithm, considering environmental factors, are an essential tool that helps use solar energy systems more efficiently and sustainably.

Solar Powered Car Optimization Through Machine Learning

The main goal of the project is to predict the solar power output of the solar panel depending on prevailing weather conditions using some Machine Learning algorithms for the purpose of optimizing and adapting the power consumption so as to strike a good balance between solar power supply and demand. For predicting the power output, the following parameters are measured with the help of an Arduino-based sensor unit -Temperature, Pressure, Light intensity and Relative humidity. Apart from them as well, cloud coverage, visibility, and dew point, and we add wind speed is also taken into consideration which we collect from the weather forecast that help a lot. In order in an attempt to train the Machine Learning algorithms, a dataset using the above parameters will be formed hopefully. As renewable energy is gaining a lot of ground rapidly, it becomes necessary for us interestingly to make solar systems reliable kind of. By predicting the power output of the panel we can plan a Necessary alternative accordingly as well, making the system more reliable indubitably. Solar energy prediction is significant in enhancing the competitiveness of solar power plants in the energy market indeed, and decreasing reliance on fossil fuels in socio-economic development largely. Our work is aiming to accurately predict the solar energy. IndexTerms–MachineLearning, SolarPower, Arduino Uno, PythonJupyterNotebook, Sensors.

Analysis of variables to determine their influence on renewable energy forecasting using ensemble methods

Forecasting is of great importance in the field of renewable energies because it allows us to know the quantity of energy that can be produced, and thus, to have an efficient management of energy sources. However, determining which prediction system is more adequate is very complex, as each energy infrastructure is different. This work studies the influence of some variables when making predictions using ensemble methods for different locations. In particular, the proposal analyzes the influence of the aspects: the variation of the sampling frequency of solar panel systems, the influence of the type of neural network architecture and the number of ensemble method blocks for each model. Following comprehensive experimentation across multiple locations, our study has identified the most effective solar energy prediction model tailored to the specific conditions of each energy infrastructure. The results offer a decisive framework for selecting the optimal system for accurate and efficient energy forecasting. The key point is the use of short time intervals, which is independent of type of prediction model and of their ensemble method.

Spatio-Temporal Time Series Forecasting Using an Iterative Kernel-Based Regression

Spatio-temporal time series analysis is a growing area of research that includes different types of tasks, such as forecasting, prediction, clustering, and visualization. In many domains, like epidemiology or economics, time series data are collected to describe the observed phenomenon in particular locations over a predefined time slot and predict future behavior. Regression methods provide a simple mechanism for evaluating empirical functions over scattered data points. In particular, kernel-based regressions are suitable for cases in which the relationship between the data points and the function is not linear. In this work, we propose a kernel-based iterative regression model, which fuses data from several spatial locations for improving the forecasting accuracy of a given time series. In more detail, the proposed method approximates and extends a function based on two or more spatial input modalities coded by a series of multiscale kernels, which are averaged as a convex combination. The proposed spatio-temporal regression resembles ideas that are present in deep learning architectures, such as passing information between scales. Nevertheless, the construction is easy to implement, and it is also suitable for modeling data sets of limited size. Experimental results demonstrate the proposed model for solar energy prediction, forecasting epidemiology infections, and future number of fire events. The method is compared with well-known regression techniques and highlights the benefits of the proposed model in terms of accuracy and flexibility. The reliable outcome of the proposed model and its nonparametric nature yield a robust tool to be integrated as a forecasting component in wide range of decision support systems that analyze time series data. History: Kwok-Leung Tsui served as the senior editor for this article. Funding: This research was supported by the Israel Science Foundation [Grant 1144/20] and partly supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Israel [Grant 5614]. Data Ethics & Reproducibility Note: The code capsule is available on Code Ocean at https://codeocean.com/capsule/6417440/tree and in the e-Companion to this article (available at https://doi.org/10.1287/ijds.2023.0019 ).

Stochastic optimization of solar-based distributed energy system: An error-based scenario with a day-ahead and real-time dynamic scheduling approach

Distributed energy systems (DES) have garnered global attention as a promising solution for the expansion of renewable energy sources. However, stochastic uncertainty in renewable sources poses significant challenges in the collaboration optimization of system design and operation. In this study, a comparison analysis was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the conventional distribution-based scenario generation (DS) method for stochastic optimization of a distributed energy system in residential buildings. The results revealed that the DS method inaccurately captured extreme scenarios and exhibited limitations in operation optimization, leading to significant performance evaluation bias. To address these challenges, a novel stochastic optimization approach was developed based on error-based scenarios and a day-ahead and real-time dynamic scheduling strategy (ES-DRS). This approach incorporated solar energy prediction errors to more accurately characterize extreme scenarios, while also considering dynamic dual-scale meteorological boundary condition for rolling operation optimization. Furthermore, the buffer storage and coverage periods in ES-DRS were investigated and discussed during dynamic scheduling. Results demonstrated that when the buffer storage and coverage period were set at 36.22 kWh in summer and 24 h, respectively, the DES with ES-DRS achieved optimal multi-objective performance. This resulted in an annual total cost of 3.21 × 104 USD and CO2 emission of 5.82 tons, representing reductions of 26.45% and 61.06%, respectively, compared to the conventional strategy. Overall, this research contributes to advancing uncertainty analysis and scenario-based optimization in DES, highlighting the potential benefits of adopting the ES-DRS approach to maximize overall performance from both economic and environmental perspectives.

Efficient Representation Learning of Satellite Image Time Series and Their Fusion for Spatiotemporal Applications

Satellite data bolstered by their increasing accessibility is leading to many endeavors of automated monitoring of the earth's surface for various applications. Such applications demand high spatial resolution images at a temporal resolution of a few days which entails the challenge of processing a huge volume of image time series data. To overcome this computing bottleneck, we present PatchNet, a bespoke adaptation of beam search and attention mechanism. PatchNet is an automated patch selection neural network that requires only a partial spatial traversal of an image time series and yet achieves impressive results. Satellite systems face a trade-off between spatial and temporal resolutions due to budget/technical constraints e.g., Landsat-8/9 or Sentinel-2 have high spatial resolution whereas, MODIS has high temporal resolution. To deal with the limitation of coarse temporal resolution, we propose FuSITSNet, a twofold feature-based generic fusion model with multimodal learning in a contrastive setting. It produces a learned representation after fusion of two satellite image time series leveraging finer spatial resolution of Landsat and finer temporal resolution of MODIS. The patch alignment module of FuSITSNet aligns the PatchNet processed patches of Landsat-8 with the corresponding MODIS regions to incorporate its finer resolution temporal features. The untraversed patches are handled by the cross-modality attention which highlights additional hot spot features from the two modalities. We conduct extensive experiments on more than 2000 counties of US for crop yield, snow cover, and solar energy prediction and show that even one-fourth spatial processing of image time series produces state-of-the-art results. FuSITSNet outperforms the predictions of single modality and data obtained using existing generative fusion models and allows for monitoring of dynamic phenomena using freely accessible images, thereby unlocking new opportunities.

Mathematical Prediction of Electrical Solar Energy Based on Solar Data for Two Main Cities of Chad: Mongo in the Centre and Pala in the South of Chad

The comparative study of the solar powers between two main cities of Chad is performed in the present work, the city of Mongo in the Centre and that of Pala in the South, with an aim of knowing which one of the two cities is more adequate for an installation of the solar power station, taking into account the regional climatic and environmental conditions of both cities. To do this, the graphical statistical analysis of long-term solar irradiance data and temperature is performed. The data used is that of the decade (2010-2020), based on solar radiation data handed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PGIS) for Mongo in the centre and Pala in the south of Chad. The shape of the mean monthly irradiation has been plotted and has been approximated using the sinusoidal function through the mean square analysis. The temperature data has been also obtained by the same process and plotted versus irradiance in order to find the adequate mathematical relationship between them. For the statistical analysis, the maximum entropy principle has been used. As results, it is found that the maximum irradiance is obtained in March, which are 226.26kWh/m<sup>2</sup> for Pala and 219.355kWh/m<sup>2</sup> for Mongo, while the minimum irradiances are obtained in August, which are 151.67kWh/m<sup>2</sup> for Pala and 158.9kWh/m<sup>2</sup> for Mongo. The temperature data is also obtained and the mean monthly data plotted, showing that apart for the months of March and April, the the shapes of irradiation and temperatures are similar for both sites. Then it is found that the frequency and probability density distributions reach their maximum at the same dates.