Predicted No-effect Concentration Values Research Articles

Process design for removal of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants based on predicted no effect concentration (PNEC)

Increasing concern on water contamination by micropollutants like pharmaceuticals fuels the development and implementation of technologies to remove micropollutants from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). However, often the targets and criteria for process design of such technologies are not clarified. This study was conducted to test whether predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) can be used as a design parameter for advanced treatment technologies to achieve pharmaceutical levels in WWTP effluents. This goal is consistent with environmental requirements, currently being discussed both by the Danish authorities and the European goals on zero emissions as documented in the draft of the Urban Wastewater Directive. The effluent of a conventional activated sludge WWTP was treated by ozonation and granular activated carbon (GAC) and monitored for 50 pharmaceuticals and iodinated X-ray contrast media, as well as 23 transformation products. Treatment with GAC alone initially achieved concentrations below PNEC for all targeted compounds, but after treating 3,000 – 5,000 bed volumes, the removal for several compounds decreased and the effluent concentrations for clarithromycin and venlafaxine were no longer below PNEC. Ozonation alone effectively reduced the concentrations of most of the compounds with standard ozone dosing of 0.5 mg O3/mg DOC. However, ozonation was unable to remove bicalutamide and oxazepam to reach target concentrations. The operation of both technologies in combination achieved concentrations of all measured pharmaceuticals below the PNEC (even with ozone concentrations of below 0.5 mg O3/mg DOC). Nonetheless, this study suggests that proper steering of WWTP design via the PNEC values alone is obstructed by lack of reliable primal PNEC data and absence of PNEC references for emerging pollutants and potential biologically active transformation products.

Is natural better? An ecotoxicity study of anthraquinone dyes

The concept of sustainability has gained prominence in recent years, enhancing the need to develop products that are less harmful to the environment. Dyes are used by various industrial sectors and have a lot of market value; they are used on a large scale mainly by the textile industry that uses large volumes of water and is one of the main contributors to the contamination of water bodies. Some natural compounds, especially anthraquinones are re-emerging as possible alternatives to synthetic dyes, some of which are known for their toxic and/or mutagenic effects. The BioColour project (https://biocolour.fi/) which is interested in promoting the development of new alternative molecules to synthetic dyes, provided us highly purified anthraquinone dyes dermocybin and dermorubin (>98% purity) extracted from a specie of fungus Cortinarius sanguineus. Dyes were tested for their acute and chronic toxicity using different aquatic organisms. Dermorubin was not toxic to any of the organisms tested for the highest test concentration of 1 mg L−1 and it was the most promising dye. Dermocybin was toxic to Daphnia similis (EC50 = 0.51 mg L−1), Ceriodaphnia dubia (IC10 = 0.13 mg L−1) and Danio rerio embryos (extrapolated LC50 = 2.44 mg L−1). A safety limit, i.e, predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of 0.0026 mg L−1 was derived based on the toxicity of dermocybin. The PNEC value can be used to provide hazard information for future application in commercial dyeing processes. Then, we compared the toxicity of dermocybin and dermorubin with ecotoxicity data available in the literature on other anthraquinone dyes of natural and synthetic origin. Some natural dyes can be as toxic as synthetic ones, or more toxic when chronic effects are considered. Despite natural dyes being used since centuries past, there are few ecotoxicological studies available. This study is designed to help develop a more comprehensive understanding of their toxicological properties.

Acute bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity of olivine in the marine amphipod Gammarus locusta

Active atmospheric carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is needed at a gigaton scale in the next decades to keep global warming below 1.5 °C. Coastal enhanced silicate weathering (CESW) aims to increase natural ocean carbon sequestration via chemical weathering of finely ground olivine (MgxFe(1−x)SiO4) rich rock dispersed in dynamic coastal environments. However, the environmental safety of the technique remains in question due to the high Ni and Cr content of olivine. Therefore, we investigated the short term bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity of olivine in the marine amphipod Gammarus locusta. Acute 24-h olivine exposure resulted in significant grain size dependent olivine ingestion and subsequent Ni and Cr accumulation in tissues. Thousands of small (mainly ≤ 10 µm) olivine grains were ingested by G. locusta, but their importance for trace metal bioaccumulation requires additional research. Most olivine grains were egested within 24 h. Chronic 35-day olivine (3–99 µm) exposure reduced amphipod survival, growth, and reproduction, likely as a result of metal induced oxidative stress and disturbance of major cation homeostasis. Amphipod reproduction was significantly reduced at olivine concentrations of 10% w/w and higher. In the context of ecological risk assessment, application of an arbitrary assessment factor of 100 to the highest no observed effect concentration of 1% w/w olivine yields a very low predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of 0.01% w/w olivine. This low PNEC value highlights the urgent need for additional marine olivine toxicity data to accurately assess the environmentally safe scale of coastal enhanced weathering for climate change mitigation.

Abnormal fluoride distribution, human health risk assessment, predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) and environmental hazards in an Egyptian lake connected to the Mediterranean Sea

Fluoride can affect the metabolism and physiological functioning of humans and aquatic organisms like any hazardous substance when it exceeds its permissible limits and PNEC values. The fluoride content of the lake water and sediment samples collected from different locations was determined to assess its risks to humans and its ecological toxicity in Lake Burullus. Statistical analyses show that the proximity of the supplying drains had an impact on the fluoride content. Fluoride ingestion and skin contact in lake water and sediment during swimming for child, female and male were evaluated at 95, 90, and 50%. The values of hazard quotient (HQ) and total hazard quotient (THQ) for children, females and males were less than one, reflecting that exposure to fluoride through ingestion and skin-to-skin contact while swimming poses no risks to human health. PNEC values for fluoride in lake water and sediment were estimated using the equilibrium partitioning method (EPM). The ecological risk assessment of fluoride for acute and chronic toxicity was performed for the three trophic levels based on the PNEC, the half-maximal effective concentration (EC50), the median lethal dose (LC50), the no-observed effect concentration (NOEC), and the 5% lethal concentration (EC05). The risk quotient (RQ), mixture risk characterization ratios (RCRmix), relative contribution (RC), toxic unit (TU), and sum of toxic units (STU) were estimated. The acute and chronic RCRmix(STU) and RCRmix(MEC/PNEC) produced similar values for the three trophic levels in lake water and sediment, indicating that invertebrates are the most sensitive species to fluoride. These results of evaluating the environmental risks of fluoride in lake water and sediments reflected its significant impact on aquatic organisms living in the lake area in the long term.

Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether and decabromodiphenyl ether in surface waters across China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are efficient brominated flame retardants and are released into various environmental media via usage, recycling and disposal. This study investigated the concentrations and ecological risks of two typical PBDEs, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) and decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209), in surface waters across China from 2011 to 2018. The results showed that the concentration of BDE-209 (8.25 ng L−1) was higher than that of BDE-47 (1.02 ng L−1), and the concentrations of BDE-47 and BDE-209 in the lakes (2.56 ng L−1 and 22.19 ng L−1, respectively) were higher than those in the rivers (0.58 ng L−1 and 7.05 ng L−1, respectively). In addition, the concentration of BDE-209 in the wet season (2.61 ng L−1) was lower than that in the dry season (10.83 ng L−1), whereas the concentration of BDE-47 in the wet season (0.24 ng L−1) was a little lower than that in the dry season (0.99 ng L−1). BDE-47 and BDE-209 concentrations showed a gradual decrease in surface waters across China during the eight-year period. Based on the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) models, the 5% hazardous concentration (HC5) and predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values were derived using the acute and chronic toxicity data of BDE-47 and BDE-209. Results showed that the PNEC values based on the acute and chronic toxicity data were 2.08 μg L−1 and 0.52 μg L−1 for BDE-47, respectively and 370 μg L−1 and 0.34 μg L−1 for BDE-209, respectively. The risk quotient (RQ) values of BDE-47 in surface waters across China were far smaller than 0.1 (low ecological risk). Similarly, the RQ values of BDE-209 were also smaller than 0.1, except for those at Baiyangdian Lake and Chaohu Lake, where the probability of 0.1 ≤ RQ < 1.0 (medium ecological risk) was approximately 10% based on 10,000 Monte Carlo simulations.

Risk Assessment of Contaminants in Sewage Sludge Applied on Norwegian Soils

Risk Assessment of Contaminants in Sewage Sludge Applied on Norwegian Soils

Environmental and human health risk assessment of mixture of Covid-19 treating pharmaceutical drugs in environmental waters

This study identified ecological and human health risks exposure of COVID-19 pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in environmental waters. Environmental concentrations in aquatic species were predicted using surface water concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds. Predicted No-Effect Concentrations (PNEC) in aquatic organisms (green algae, daphnia, and fish) was estimated using EC50/LC50 values of pharmaceutical compounds taken from USEPA ECOSAR database. PNEC for human health risks was calculated using the acceptable daily intake values of drugs. Ecological PNEC revealed comparatively high values in algae (Chronic toxicity PNEC values, high to low: ribavirin (2.65 × 105 μg/L) to ritonavir (2.3 × 10−1 μg/L)) than daphnia and fish. Risk quotient (RQ) analysis revealed that algae (Avg. = 2.81 × 104) appeared to be the most sensitive species to pharmaceutical drugs followed by daphnia (Avg.: 1.28 × 104) and fish (Avg.: 1.028 × 103). Amongst the COVID-19 metabolites, lopinavir metabolites posed major risk to aquatic species. Ritonavir (RQ = 6.55) is the major drug responsible for human health risk through consumption of food (in the form fish) grown in pharmaceutically contaminated waters. Mixture toxicity analysis of drugs revealed that algae are the most vulnerable species amongst the three trophic levels. Maximum allowable concentration level for mixture of pharmaceuticals was found to be 0.53 mg/L.

Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS) in Surface Water of China: National Exposure Distributions and Probabilistic Risk Assessment.

This study presents a comprehensive application of the probabilistic risk assessment methodology for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), which are two types of perfluoroalkyl acids frequently studied in recent years. The exposure characteristics of PFOA and PFOS in Chinese surface water on a nationwide scale were summarized. Individual predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) and the sensitivities for taxonomic groups of primary producers, invertebrates, and vertebrates were derived by the species sensitivity distributions method. Both hazard quotients (HQs) and joint probability curves were calculated to assess the risks to aquatic organisms. Among seven Chinese river basins, the mean concentrations of PFOA and PFOS in the Yangtze River Basin were the highest (58ng/L and 22ng/L, respectively), while the lowest concentrations (< 1ng/L) were in the Songhua River Basin. The acute PNEC value was 2.43mg/L for PFOA and 0.96mg/L for PFOS, and the chronic PNEC value was 0.0067mg/L for PFOA and 0.0012mg/L for PFOS, respectively. The sensitivities of different taxonomic groups revealed higher sensitivity of primary producers for PFOA and higher sensitivity of invertebrates for PFOS. The acute HQs of PFOA and PFOS were less than 1. The probabilities of exposure concentrations exceeding 5th percentile toxicity value of the chronic data for all aquatic organisms were 1.65% for PFOA and 1.23% for PFOS, respectively, suggesting a low probability of effects to aquatic organisms. Compared with the risk scenarios worldwide, the ecological risks for chronic effects decreased in the order of PFOS (worldwide) > PFOA (China) > PFOS (China) > PFOA (worldwide).

Country-Specific Environmental Risks of Fragrance Encapsulates Used in Laundry Care Products.

Fragrance encapsulates (FEs) are designed to deliver fragrance components, notably in laundry care products. They are made of thermoset polymeric shells surrounding the fragrance content. These materials enter the environment mainly during laundry washing, but little is known about their distribution in and impact on the environment. The aim of the present study was to estimate the environmental concentrations of FE shells in freshwater, sediment, and soil compartments for 34 selected countries and to compare them with ecotoxicological effects. Probabilistic material flow analysis was used to estimate worst‐case predicted environmental concentrations (PECs). The lowest freshwater PEC was predicted for Finland (0.00011 µg/L) and the highest for Belgium (0.13 µg/L). Accumulation of FE shells between 2010 and 2019 was considered for sediments and sludge‐treated soils. The PECs in sediments ranged from 3.0 µg/kg (Finland) to 3400 µg/kg (Belgium). For sludge‐treated soil, the concentration was estimated to be between 0 (Malta and Switzerland) and 3600 µg/kg (Vietnam). Ecotoxicological tests showed no effects for FE shells at any tested concentration (up to 2700 µg/L freshwater, 5400 µg/kg sediment, and 9100 µg/kg soil), thus not allowing derivation of a predicted‐no‐effect concentration (PNEC). Therefore, to characterize the environmental risks, the PEC values were compared with highest‐observed‐no‐effect concentrations (HONECs) derived from ecotoxicological tests. The PEC/HONEC ratios were 9.3 × 10–6, 0.13, and 0.04 for surface waters, sediments, and sludge‐treated soils, respectively, which are much below 1, suggesting no environmental risk. Because the PEC values constitute an upper boundary (no fate considered) and the HONEC values represent a lower boundary (actual PNEC values based on NOECs will be higher), the current risk estimation can be considered a precautionary worst‐case assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:905–916. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Comparisons of PNEC derivation logic flows under example regulatory schemes and implications for ecoTTC

Derivation of Predicted No Effect Concentrations (PNECs) for aquatic systems is the primary deterministic form of hazard extrapolation used in environmental risk assessment. Depending on the data availability, different regulatory jurisdictions apply application factors (AFs) to the most sensitive measured endpoint to derive the PNEC for a chemical. To assess differences in estimated PNEC values, two PNEC determination methodologies were applied to a curated public database using the EnviroTox Platform (www.EnviroToxdatabase.org). PNECs were derived for 3647 compounds using derivation procedures based on example US EPA and a modified European Union chemical registration procedure to allow for comparisons. Ranked probability distributions of PNEC values were developed and 5th percentile values were calculated for the entire dataset and scenarios where full acute or full chronic data sets were available. The lowest PNEC values indicated categorization based on chemical attributes and modes of action would lead to improved extrapolations. Full acute or chronic datasets gave measurably higher 5th percentile PNEC values. Algae were under-represented in available ecotoxicity data but drove PNECs disproportionately. Including algal inhibition studies will be important in understanding chemical hazards. The PNEC derivation logic flows are embedded in the EnviroTox Platform providing transparent and consistent PNEC derivations and PNEC distribution calculations.

A Novel Approach to Derive the Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC) of Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) Using the Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD) Method: Suggestion of a New PNEC Value for BP-3

The necessity for the aquatic ecological risk assessment for benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is increasing due to its high toxic potential and high detection frequency in freshwater. The initial step in the ecological risk assessment is to determine predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC). This study derived PNEC of BP-3 in freshwater using a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) approach, whilst existing PNECs are derived using assessment factor (AF) approaches. A total of eight chronic toxicity values, obtained by toxicity testing and a literature survey, covering four taxonomic classes (fish, crustaceans, algae, and cyanobacteria) were used for PNEC derivation. Therefore, the quantity and quality of the toxicity data met the minimum requirements for PNEC derivation using an SSD approach. The PNEC derived in this study (73.3 μg/L) was far higher than the environmental concentration detected in freshwater (up to 10.4 μg/L) as well as existing PNECs (0.67~1.8 μg/L), mainly due to the difference in the PNEC derivation methodology (i.e., AF vs. SSD approach). Since the SSD approach is regarded as more reliable than the AF approach, we recommend applying the PNEC value derived in this study for the aquatic ecological risk assessment of BP-3, as the use of the existing PNEC values seems to unnecessarily overestimate the potential ecological risk of BP-3 in freshwater.

Derivation of acute copper biotic ligand model-based predicted no-effect concentrations and acute-chronic ratio.

The copper biotic ligand model (BLM) can quantitatively describe the bioavailability depending on various environmental factors and has been used to derive the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs). The commonly employed acute BLM tool, HydroQual, which applies the biotic ligand constants of fathead minnow in the same model structure for all taxonomic groups, estimates lower acute copper toxicity values compared to the chronic copper PNECs of the European Union Risk Assessment Reports (EU-RAR), which are based on taxon-specific model structures and biotic ligand constants for vertebrates, invertebrates, and algae. In this study, the full-BLM approach was applied using an appropriate acute BLM for each taxonomic group to derive acute HC5s (fifth percentile value in the species sensitivity distribution [SSD]) and an acute-chronic ratio for copper. Two acute BLMs for vertebrates and invertebrates were used and validated against site waters using the new method to estimate the intrinsic sensitivity for each species across different environmental conditions. To derive acute copper full BLM-based HC5s in Korean freshwater, acute toxicity tests were performed with 10 indigenous species, which were used to build the acute BLM-based SSD at each site. The final estimated acute full-BLM HC5s were higher than the EU-RAR chronic PNECs within the BLM calibration range. Furthermore, a linear relationship was observed between the acute full-BLM HC5s and the EU-RAR chronic PNECs. This linear regression function was suggested as an acute to chronic transformation function that can be applied to calculate chronic PNEC values. In conclusion, if the chronic ecotoxicity database of indigenous aquatic organisms for copper is lacking, it may be more efficient to derive chronic PNECs using an acute-chronic ratio after deriving BLM-based acute copper SSDs for indigenous species within representative taxonomic groups. This study provides a scientific foundation for the derivation of water quality criteria for copper in freshwater.

Seasonal and Spatial Detection of Pesticide Residues Under Various Weather Conditions of Agricultural Areas of the Kilombero Valley Ramsar Site, Tanzania

This study was conducted in the Kilombero Valley Ramsar Site (KVRS), the largest low-altitude freshwater wetland in East Africa to: 1) determine pesticide contamination of soil, water, and sediment at different seasonal weather conditions 2) critically analyze the seasonal and spatial ecological impacts of pesticide contaminations under tropical weather conditions 3) estimate the potential environmental risks from pesticide exposure based on analytical data. Surface sediments, soil and water samples were collected from sugarcane, teak and rice plantations of the KVRS during the dry (January 2012) and the rainy (March–April 2013) seasons. Samples were screened for 97 different types of pesticide residues using and LC–MS and HPLC–MS. Physical-chemical properties of the sediment and soil samples and meteorological data were analyzed. 92% of soil and sediment samples had relatively low OM content (&amp;lt;5%) while 60% of samples had high clay content, indicating high cation exchange capacity that can bind pesticides to the soils. Field soil and air temperature ranging 28–35°C, total sunshine hours-208 h/month, photo radiation −764 MJ/m2, average precipitation 300 mm/month, wind speed &amp;gt;60 km/h, humidity &amp;gt;80% were recorded. Frequency of detection and concentration of pesticides residues depended on seasons. For the dry season sampling, glyphosate/AMPA (0.01–0.55 µg/g), and diuron (0.026–1.7 µg/g) were mostly detected in the sediment and soils. Monuron (1.28–3.9 µg/L) and propoxur (0.05–0.6 µg/L) were mostly detected in the rainy seasons (water and sediments). Glyphosate was above limit of detection in the dry season water samples indicating that its emission into the water system may have been directly through application. Maximum diuron concentrations in water were &amp;gt;30 times higher than the estimated predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) value (0.054 µg/L) indicating a risk to aquatic community. Calculated pore water concentrations (0.992–0.081 µg/L), exceeded the estimated PNEC values during the dry season, indicating a risk to benthic organisms. Detection of pesticide is influenced by application, environmental factors and the timing of sampling. Further research is recommended to increase our knowledge on soil-water-sediment interactions in the tropics with regard to pesticides.

Ecological Thresholds of Toxicological Concern: A Review.

The ecological threshold of toxicological concern (ecoTTC) is analogous to traditional human health-based TTCs but with derivation and application to ecological species. An ecoTTC is computed from the probability distribution of predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) derived from either chronic or extrapolated acute toxicity data for toxicologically or chemically similar groups of chemicals. There has been increasing interest in using ecoTTCs in screening level environmental risk assessments and a computational platform has been developed for derivation with aquatic species toxicity data (https://envirotoxdatabase.org/). Current research and development areas include assessing mode of action-based chemical groupings, conservatism in estimated PNECs and ecoTTCs compared to existing regulatory values, and the influence of taxa (e.g., algae, invertebrates, and fish) composition in the distribution of PNEC values. The ecoTTC continues to develop as a valuable alternative strategy within the toolbox of traditional and new approach methods for ecological chemical assessment. This brief review article describes the ecoTTC concept and potential applications in ecological risk assessment, provides an overview of the ecoTTC workflow and how the values can be derived, and highlights recent developments and ongoing research. Future applications of ecoTTC concept in different disciplines are discussed along with opportunities for its use.

Ecotoxicity to Freshwater Organisms and Cytotoxicity of Nanomaterials: Are We Generating Sufficient Data for Their Risk Assessment?

The aim of the present study was to investigate the eco-cytotoxicity of several forms of nanomaterials (NM), such as nano-CuO, nano-TiO2, nano-SiO2 and nano-ZnO, on different aquatic species (Raphidocelis subcapitata, Daphnia magna and Lemna minor) following standard protocols and on human cell lines (Caco-2, SV-80, HepG2 and HaCaT). Predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) or hazard concentrations for 5% of the species (HC5) were also estimated based on the compilation of data available in the literature. Most of the NM agglomerated strongly in the selected culture media. For the ecotoxicity assays, nano-CuO and nano-ZnO even in particle agglomeration state were the most toxic NM to the freshwater organisms compared to nano-TiO2 and nano-SiO2. Nano-ZnO was the most toxic NM to R. subcapitata and D. magna, while nano-CuO was found to be very toxic to L. minor. Nano-CuO was very toxic to Caco-2 and HepG2 cells, particularly at the highest tested concentrations, while the other NM showed no toxicity to the different cell lines. The HC5 and PNEC values are still highly protective, due to data limitations. However, the present study provides consistent evidence of the potential risks of both nano-CuO and nano-ZnO against aquatic organisms and also their effects on public health.

Ecological risk assessment of microplastics in coastal, shelf, and deep sea waters with a consideration of environmentally relevant size and shape.

This study assessed the ecological risk posed by microplastics in surface and subsurface seawaters in coastal, continental shelf, and deep-sea areas of South Korea. The target microplastics for risk assessment were specified as only non-spherical type microplastics in the size range 20-300μm, because this type was predominantly observed in our study areas, and adverse biological effects have previously been reported. Exposure data for non-spherical microplastics were obtained from a previous study or were measured for microplastics of sizes down to 20μm. A predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of 12 particles/L was derived by employing a species sensitivity distribution approach. Then the results were compared to the in situ observed concentrations at each site. The detected microplastic concentrations did not exceed the derived PNEC, i.e., the current pollution levels of fragment and fiber microplastics in the size range 20-300μm would not pose a significant threat to the marine ecosystem in South Korea. However, predictions are that microplastic pollution will increase to 50-fold by 2100at the current rates, and in this scenario, the microplastic concentration is expected to far exceed the derived PNEC values for marine ecosystems. It is therefore urgent to take precautionary actions to prevent a further increase in microplastic concentrations in these environments.

Copper ecological risk assessment using DGT technique and PNEC: A case study in the Brazilian coast

Estuarine systems are vulnerable to metals stress, such as copper (Cu). Thus, the development of applicable tools to improve routine monitoring programs is increasingly necessary. In the present work a comprehensive Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) was implemented by coupling the Measured Environmental Concentration (MEC), based on labile Cu (DGT) and the total dissolved Cu concentration. Additionally, toxicity data related to site-specific Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC) were used. As case study, estuarine areas were selected on Brazilian coast, previously reported as Cu release in shipyard areas. The results indicated an increase in concentrations of dissolved and labile Cu during the application of antifouling paints. In locations where more vessels in maintenance were found, the concentration of Cu-DGT exceeded the PNEC value (0.16 μg.L−1) and represented an important part of the total dissolved fraction (>93 %). The MEC/PNEC quotients, showed that shipyard areas represent a high ecological risk. Thus, it is highlighted the need for site-specific environmental assessments to manage complex ecosystems and set in environmental legislation. Consequently, the novel coupling of DGT technique and the derivation of a site-specific PNEC represent an easily applicable tool as an alternative to classical ERAs.

Systematic Consideration of Parameter Uncertainty and Variability in Probabilistic Species Sensitivity Distributions.

The calculation of a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) is a commonly accepted approach to derive the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of a substance in the context of environmental risk assessment. The SSD approach usually is data demanding and incorporates a large number of ecotoxicological values from different experimental studies. The probabilistic SSD (PSSD) approach is able to fully consider the variability between different exposure conditions and material types, which is of great importance when constructing an SSD for any chemical, especially for nanomaterials. The aim of our work was to further develop the PSSD approach by implementing methods to better consider the uncertainty and variability of the input data. We incorporated probabilistic elements to consider the uncertainty associated with uncertainty factors by using probability distributions instead of single values. The new PSSD method (named "PSSD+") computes 10 000 PSSDs based on a Monte Carlo routine. For each PSSD calculated, the hazardous concentration for 5% of species (HC5 ) was extracted to provide a PNEC distribution based on all data available and their associated uncertainty. The PSSD+ approach also includes the option to consider a species weighting according to a typically constituted biome. We applied this PSSD+ approach to a previously published data set on C nanotubes and Ag nanoparticles. The evaluation of the uncertainty factor distributions and species weighting have shown that the proposed PSSD method is robust with respect to the calculation of the PNEC value. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the PSSD+ can handle both small and more comprehensive data sets because the PNEC distributions are a close representation of the data available. Finally, the sensitivity testing toward data set variations showed that the maximum variation of the mean PNEC was of a factor of about 2, so that the method is relatively insensitive to missing data points as long as the most sensitive species is included. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:211-222. © 2019 SETAC.

Toxicity of methylparaben to green microalgae species and derivation of a predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) in freshwater ecosystems.

Methylparaben (MeP) is one of the most used preservatives in the industry; however, the toxic effects on aquatic ecosystems are still poorly understood. Therefore, this study was conducted (1) to identify and compare the toxic effects of MeP on physiological parameters of different green microalgae species, using suitable mathematical models; and (2) to estimate a PNEC value for MeP in freshwater ecosystems, adopting either the deterministic or the probabilistic approaches. Toxicity tests were carried out with three green microalgae (Pseudopediastrum boryanum, Desmodesmus communis, Raphidocelis subcapitata), in which different endpoints such as growth rate, chlorophyll-a, and cell viability were measured and compared through the effective concentration which caused a response in x% of test organisms (ECx). ECx were obtained by adjusting different non-linear regression models for each microalgae dataset. Chlorophyll-a endpoint resulted in the lowest EC50 values, respectively 125, 81.2, 18.3 mg L-1 for D. communis, P. boryanum and R. subcapitata, showing R. subicapitata as the most sensitive, and D. communis as the most tolerant species to MeP (P < 0.05). PNEC was estimated from the present study and previous reports resulting in 5.7 and 65 μg L-1, respectively for the deterministic (PNECd) and the probabilistic (PNECp) approach. The development of chronic assays using test organisms from different ecological groups is encouraged to provide robust PNECp. In this meantime, we recommend the use of the estimated PNECd to support MeP risk assessments and policy formulation.

Predicted no-effect concentrations determination and ecological risk assessment for benzophenone-type UV filters in aquatic environment

Benzophenones (BPs), a group of widely used ultraviolet filters, have been frequently detected out in multiple environment matrices even in organism bodies. Although a variety of toxicological effects of BPs have been disclosed recently, it is barely to evaluate the potential ecological risk of BPs due to lack of reference criteria. Therefore, the determination of predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values is necessary for assessing ecological risk of BPs and for protecting safety of aquatic organisms. The toxicological data of 14 BPs from both in vivo tests on aquatic organisms and in vitro tests on strains/cell lines were collected from previous reports, and two methods including assessment factor (AF) and species sensitivity distribution (SSD) were applied to calculate PNECs, respectively. Four groups of PNECs were obtained and compared, a final PNEC value was recommended for each BP based on reliable and conservative consideration. With these PNECs values, the risk quotients of 8 BPs from 35 ambient freshwater samples were calculated, the results demonstrated that 3 BPs including 2,2′,4,4′-tetrahydroxyl-BP, 2-hydroxyl-4-methoxyl- BP, and 2-hydroxyl-4-methoxyl-5-sulfonic acid-BP exhibited high ecological risk, and the ecological risk posed by BPs in River Tiff in UK was great. It is anticipated that these results would provide useful reference for assessing and managing BP-type compounds, and for selecting toxicity data and methods to derive PNECs for emerging contaminants.