Pre-task Planning Time Research Articles

The effect of planning time on vocabulary acquisition in a task-based environment: the mediating roles of working memory and field (in)dependence

This research investigated the impact of planning time, working memory (WM), and cognitive styles on language learning outcomes within the framework of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT). Drawing on a diverse sample of language learners, the study employed a pretest-posttest control group quasi-experiment to examine the effects of providing pre-task planning time on language performance. Participants engaged in communicative tasks, with a focus on vocabulary acquisition and task complexity, while their cognitive processes were assessed through measures of WM and cognitive styles. The findings revealed significant interactions between planning time and cognitive styles, particularly field dependence, influencing language production and proficiency such that learners with planning time outperformed learners without planning time; high-WM learners outperformed their low-WM peers, and field independent learners outstripped their field-dependent counterparts. Moreover, the study contributes to the broader understanding of the nuanced relationship between planning time, WM, and cognitive styles in the context of TBLT. The implications of these findings for language teachers, materials developers, syllabus designers, curriculum developers, and policymakers are discussed, offering insights into the design of effective language learning environments. Despite certain limitations, the study provides a foundation for further research exploring cross-cultural variations, longitudinal effects, and the integration of technology in language education, with the aim of advancing pedagogical practices tailored to diverse learner profiles.

The effect of task complexity and gender differences on EFL learners’ writing performance

The current study investigates the Effect of Task Complexity and Gender Differences on EFL Learners’ Writing Performance. Task complexity is the inherent cognitive demands of the tasks imposed on the learners by the structure of the tasks. It is investigated along the resource-dispersing variables of pre-task planning time, post-task editing time and prior knowledge. This study also tries to intertwine the concepts of task complexity and sociolinguistics (i.e., gender differences). The participants are 160 high school students (80 males and 80 females) studying at international schools in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. The writing topics were selected among the essay prompts similar to those of the IELTS test using the cause-and-effect essay task type. A series of T-Test and one-way ANOVAs were used for detecting the significant differences within the same gender and across genders, Cronbach's alpha (α) for the task reliability, Wilk’s Lambda for variable contributions, Partial Eta squared (ηp2) for the effect size, and the Observed Power (or post-hoc power) for the test statistical power. This study is thought to be laden with manifold implications for varied stakeholders within the realm of didactics, including language teachers, learners, syllabus designers, test developers, educational bodies and many other individuals in the ministries of education and higher education. Should this be done, it can contribute to improving EFL undergraduate students’ ability to a level of writing production that is more likely to be satisfactory. The current study found different effects of task complexity on EFL learners’ writing performance across gender. There were both similar and different impacts on CAF metrics between the writing tasks across genders. The results indicate a partial support to the predictions of Skehan and Foster (2001) and those of Robinson (2005) where there is a partial increase in the CAF scores along the resource-dispersing variables. Conversely, findings show no support to the Gender Similarities Hypothesis (GSH) by J. S. Hyde (2005). This study also explored the effect percentage of task complexity along the resource dispersing variables planning time, editing time and prior knowledge on CAF. Besides, the researcher sorted the significant CAF metrics within same gender and across genders according to their occurrence and percentage in the performance of the current student participants.It is recommended that pedagogical tasks should be sequenced for learners on the basis of increasing in their cognitive complexity to help promote learners' performance in terms of accuracy, fluency, and complexity. In addition, educators should motivate male students to engage more and perform better in the writing classes; syllabus designers should introduce new teaching methodologies that help bridge the gap in gender differences between boys and girls.

Effect of Pre-task Planning on the Speaking Accuracy of Iranian EFL Learners

Introduction: Speaking is at the heart of second language learning. Nowadays, it is believed that pre-task planning, which is planning prior to performing a task, may enhance the speech production of learners. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the effect of pre-task planning on the speaking accuracy of EFL intermediate learners.
 Methodology: The participants in this study were 90 male and female EFL learners studying English at language institutes in Iran. To investigate the effect of individual and group pre-task planning on learners’ accuracy in speaking, the participants were randomly divided into three equal-in-number groups. In this regard, 30 participants were in individual pre-task planning, group pre-task planning, and no-planning groups. The obtained results of the pretests and post-tests were compared.
 Results: The findings of the study revealed a positive meaningful relationship between pre-task planning time and speaking accuracy of Iranian EFL learners. It was found that individual pre-task planning was significantly more effective than group pre-task planning in terms of accuracy in Iranian EFL learners’ speaking. The findings indicated pre-tasking could improve learners’ speaking accuracy, compared to no-planning.
 Conclusion: The obtained results of the current study may help language teachers, particularly syllabus designers, design pedagogical activities that pay specific attention to accuracy in language production so that learners can develop these elements of language production in a good balance.

Facilitating L2 writers' metacognitive strategy use in argumentative writing using a process-genre approach.

This paper reports on an empirical study that examined changes in L2 writers' perceived use of metacognitive strategies after receiving a process-genre writing instruction. Following a mixed-methods approach, this study was conducted in two intact College English classes at a university in China. Participants were 72 first-year undergraduates, with an experimental group (n = 40) taught by the process-genre writing approach and a comparison group (n = 32) receiving conventional writing instruction. A Likert-scale questionnaire was used to examine students' changes in their conceptualized metacognitive strategies. Think-aloud protocols were conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of students' application of metacognitive strategies and genre knowledge in performing writing tasks. Findings revealed that the process-genre instruction had a significantly positive impact on the "considering the audience" factor, and students' conception of the audience was clearer and more diversified. An in-depth analysis of the think-aloud protocols showed that the participants incorporated the acquired metacognitive strategies and genre knowledge in completing writing tasks, with more pre-task planning time focused on both global and local aspects. Students' metacognitive monitoring also shifted from surface-level lexical and grammar regulation to discourse-level text control.

Revisiting the Cognition Hypothesis: the impact of task complexity on L2 learner engagement in task performance in computer-mediated and face-to-face communication

Task complexity and communication modes are two task design and implementation factors that have been found to affect second language (L2) learners’ oral performance. While increasing task complexity and developing tasks according to the features of face-to-face and computer-mediated communication modes can optimise L2 production, few studies attend to how the two factors affect learner engagement in task performance–a crucial but under-explored concept contributing to academic achievement. To address this gap, this experimental study investigated the impact of task complexity (operationalised as ± pre-task planning time and ± intentional reasoning demand) and communication modes (synchronous video-based computer-mediated communication, SvCMC versus face-to-face real-time communication, FTF) on L2 learners’ engagement in interactive oral tasks. Sixty-four English-as-a-second-language (ESL) learners formed their self-initiated dyads to perform three interactive oral tasks (from simple to + complex and ++complex conditions) on Zoom or in a physical classroom. They were also interviewed about their affective responses to the tasks. The oral discourse of task performance and interview data were analysed in terms of behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and social engagement. The findings revealed that task complexity affected the behavioural and cognitive engagement of FTF and SvCMC learners. SvCMC learners were behaviourally more engaged in task performance than their FTF peers, but mixed results were found in cognitive engagement. Mixed affective responses were reported by FTF and SvCMC learners for all task conditions. The findings suggest that increasing task complexity may partially engage L2 learners, and teachers need to consider the affordances of the two communication modes when designing tasks to engage learners in L2 production.

Investigating the Differences Between Prepared and Spontaneous Speech Characteristics: Descriptive Approach

In the modern EFL paradigm, pre-task planning time is viewed as a norm. Pre-task planning time is one of the central concerns of teachers, test-developers, as well as researchers. Pre-task planning is planning a speech before performing a task, and it also involves rehearsal and strategic planning. The paper addresses the problem of pre-task planning advisability for A2 Russian EFL speakers. The research presented in this paper examines the structure, breakdown, repair, syntactic complexity, lexical diversity as well as the accuracy of the discourse produced by 145 Russian participants of the English language competition held in Kazan, Russia, in January 2020. The discourse analysis revealed that the pre-task time is used by A2 EFL speakers not only to focus on a dialog but also to elicit a topic text from memory, thus focusing on form rather than meaning. Hence, in A2 tests prioritizing meaning over form and measuring the ability for spontaneous speech, the one-minute pre-task planning time is viewed as questionable.

Task-Based Language Teaching Approach for Improving Speaking Fluency: Case Study of Trainee Teachers in West Bengal

The study was an attempt to assess how the trainee teachers belonging to the vernacular background, from West Bengal (Eastern part of India), India, improved their oral fluency in a Task-Based Language Teaching approach. Trainee teachers from a university were taught with a task-based approach for 2 months with task conditions like pre-task planning time, pair and group work, and feedback. The learners’ performance in the intervention tasks and pre-post-test were audio recorded. The findings indicated that the learners could produce fluent sentences with grammatical accuracy and elaborate utterances with reduced pauses. Furthermore, learners’ opinion on the task-based teaching and learning approach was sought with some questions, where they appreciated the TBLT approach as it allowed them to improve their speaking skills to an extent. The implications of the findings are discussed in light of the suitability of a task-based approach in the Indian context.

Exploring the effects of pre-task planning time on EFL learners’ narrative writing

The present study is carried out in order to provide deeper insights into the differential effects of pre-task planning time conditions on Iranian EFL learners’ narrative writing production (accuracy, fluency, and complexity). To this end, three intact classes comprising 70 EFL language learners, studying in private language institutes in Iran, were randomly assigned to either no pre-task planning, 5 minute pre-task planning or 10 minute pre-task planning conditions. Analysis of the written narratives and the results of a series of one-way ANOVA revealed that both 5 minute and 10 minute pre-task planning groups showed substantial progress compared to those in the no pre-task planning group regarding the accuracy, fluency and complexity of their output. The obtained results support the view that providing pre-task planning opportunities leads task performers to produce the kind of output which displays improved complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The results also have some implications for teachers and practitioners in EFL contexts.

Influence of Planning in Oral Teaching Methods

The mixed methods study presented in this paper investigates the influence of planning in oral teaching methods.. This research article presented examines the impact of planned and unplanned conditions on three different variables in the context of oral teaching methods: fluency, vocabulary complexity, and accuracy. As a research tool two narrative tasks were used which required the participant construct linguistic forms based on visual information, requiring the use of the participant’s imagination. With the help of qualitative content analysis, the most common ‘pattern-finding’ moves were described from the collected data in detail. In order to compare data from unplanned and planned conditions, three analyses were conducted with the help of three software tools: D-tool, P-lex, and Coh-Metrix. The results showed that pre-task planning time had a positive effect on lexical sophistication and accuracy. However, fluency under unplanned conditions was greater than under planned conditions, suggesting that the planning process does not produce a strong impact on fluency. According to most of the participants, they paid close attention to the logical order of the pictures, organization of ideas, and the coherence of their utterance while using their individual planning time.

Working memory and planning time as predictors of fluency and accuracy

Abstract Working memory, which accounts for the ability to process information in the face of interference, is critical to second language acquisition (SLA) and use. The interaction of working memory capacity (WMC) with specific pedagogical interventions is a logical place for empirical SLA research, both to examine the cognitive processes underpinning second language performance and to identify instructional treatments that may serve learners differently based on their WMC. This study considers WMC along with two different types of pre-task planning time (guided and unguided) as predictors of the attempted accuracy and fluency of learners’ discourse. Seventy-two intermediate ESL students from seven classes at a community college participated by completing two different working memory span tasks, as well as two different “There-and-Then” oral story-telling tasks. The treatment condition of the story-telling tasks was manipulated so that learners’ performance could be considered in terms of provision of pre-task planning (+/− planning), type of planning (guided vs. unguided), and order of planning (planning first or planning second). Task order had a clear effect on learners’ production, regardless of the provision of planning time. Guided planning time promoted a focus on attempted accuracy and unguided planning time fostered fluency. Finally, this study indicates that task conditions can affect high- and low-WMC learners in different ways: the former are more likely to comply with complex story-telling instructions, requiring them to focus on grammatical form at the expense of fluency, whereas the latter are less likely to comply with the same instructions.

The impact of pre-task planning on speaking test performance for English-medium university admission

This study investigated the impact of different lengths of pre-task planning time on performance in a test of second language speaking ability for university admission. In the study, 47 Turkish-speaking learners of English took a test of English language speaking ability. The participants were divided into two groups according to their language proficiency, which was estimated through a paper-based English placement test. They each completed four monologue tasks: two picture-based narrative tasks and two description tasks. In a balanced design, each test taker was allowed a different length of planning time before responding to each of the four tasks. The four planning conditions were 30 seconds, 1 minute, 5 minutes, and 10 minutes. Trained raters awarded scores to the test takers using an analytic rating scale and a context-specific, binary-choice rating scale, designed specifically for the study. The results of the rater scores were analysed by using a multifaceted Rasch measurement. The impact of pre-task planning on test scores was found to be influenced by four variables: the rating scale; the task type that test takers completed; the length of planning time provided; and the test takers’ levels of proficiency in the second language. Increases in scores were larger on the picture-based narrative tasks than on the two description tasks. The results also revealed a relationship between proficiency and pre-task planning, whereby statistical significance was only reached for the increases in the scores of the lowest-level test takers. Regarding the amount of planning time, the 5-minute planning condition led to the largest overall increases in scores. The research findings offer contributions to the study of pre-task planning and will be of particular interest to institutions seeking to assess the speaking ability of prospective students in English-medium educational environments.

Effects of task complexity on the oral production of Chinese learners of Portuguese as a foreign language

This study aims to investigate the effects of task complexity on the oral performance of Chinese learners of European Portuguese as a foreign language (PFL). In the current investigation, the cognitive task demands were manipulated along the resource-directing and resource-dispersing dimensions of the Triadic Componential Framework (Robinson, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2010, 2011, 2015). The variables chosen were respectively ±few elements and ±planning time. Using a 2 . 2 design, 39 university learners of PFL performed two monologic information-giving oral tasks: a simple task (two elements) and a complex task (six elements). Half of the learners (n = 19) were given pre-task planning time, but for the other half (n = 20) the planning time was removed. The order of the tasks was counterbalanced. The participants’ output was analysed by general and specific measures of syntactic complexity and accuracy, lexical diversity and fluency (CALF). Pre-task planning time had significant effects on accuracy. Increasing the number of elements of the task led to greater accuracy and lexical diversity and longer clause length. There were no significant effects on fluency. These findings partially support Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first CALF study to measure the oral performance of learners of PFL. These results provide new insights for research and learning in the field of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA).

Pre-Task Planning Time Strategies for the Production of Request and Refusal Speech Acts in L2 English

There is a growing consensus that implementation of planning time exerts an effect on oral speech production oflearners. Research has yet to find out what strategies are used by learners in oral speech production. To contribute tothis ongoing debate, the present study examined activation of sociopragmatic, pragmalinguistic, and contentknowledge strategies employed by learners in pre-task planning time to produce answers. Ten M.A. students andPh.D. candidates majoring in TEFL gave their answers to oral request and refusal DCTs through think-aloudprotocol. The results revealed that the pre-task planning time caused the participants to activate a high degree ofsociopragmatic, pragmalinguistic, and content knowledge awareness. Therefore, implementation of planning time inspeaking tests may help individuals to produce more fluent and socially appropriate utterances.

The effects of planning time and proficiency level on accuracy of oral task performance

This study examined the effect of pre-task planning (PTP) and proficiency level on the language proficiency of 60 English foreign language learners. The Oxford placement test was administered. Based on the scores, the participants were divided into groups of low and high proficiency. The high and low language level students were randomly assigned to either 0 minutes or 10 minutes PTP time. Then the participants in all the four groups were shown a set of pictures and were required to produce a story about it. They spoke based on the same topic, but in different conditions. The productions were transcribed for further analyses. The results of the analysis revealed that high proficiency learners (PTP) outperformed the NP group of the same level; however, there was no meaningful difference between the low groups. The results of two-way Anova also revealed an interaction between the planning and proficiency levels. Keywords: Pre-task planning time, oral performance, accuracy, proficiency.

The Effect of Pre-Task Planning Time on Second Language Oral Performance in Terms of Fluency & Accuracy on Saudis Female Preparatory Students at Princess Nora University

The study investigates the effects of pre-task planning time on both fluency, and accuracy and fluency of the participants' oral performance. The participants' performance has been transcribed and analyzed. The experimental group was provided with 5 minutes planning time before task performance whereas the control group was given a zero-planning time .As a result , the experimental group produces accurate language and fluency language input. The results of the study indicated that participants who performed the task under time pressure spoke significantly faster that those who had no time pressure during the task and the Participants with zero – planning time produced a greater variety of vocabulary than those who planned before the task. The pre –task Planning time reduces the processing load , helps learners to get goals and organize the content , reduces pressure to speak freely with self-confidence during the performance of the oral task , enhances the accuracy of the second language learner' production , concentrates more on form which helps to improve the accuracy of their second language production , and Planning time helps them to form and edit their oral production. The findings of the study are beneficial for English teachers , English designers and materials development.

The Effects of Concept Mapping Strategy and Aural vs. Written Prompts on Writing Test Performance under Different Planning Conditions

This study examined the effects of aural and written prompts under two planning conditions (i.e. pre-task planning and no planning) on complexity, accuracy, and fluency of test takers' writing production. Forty learners in an English institute, who had already been classified as intermediate according to the Oxford Placement Test, were assigned to two planning conditions (i.e. no planning and pre-task planning). Then the planning groups were further divided into another two groups: with aural prompt and with written prompt. Also, concept mapping strategy was applied during pre-task planning time by the test takers. The results obtained from t-test and two-way ANOVA revealed that the candidates who had received the written prompt utilized their planning time better and produced more fluent written texts than those who received the aural prompt. Furthermore, neither concept mapping strategy with aural prompt nor concept mapping strategy with written prompt led to more complex or more accurate writings. Finally, the interaction of no planning condition and written prompt had a significant effect on complexity in comparison with the pre-task planning condition with written prompt. Also, written prompt under no planning condition had a significant effect on complexity in comparison with the same planning condition with aural prompt. It was concluded that the planned conditions, concept mapping strategy and the received prompts had little effect on the test takers' writing performance.

The Effects of Different Lengths of Pretask Planning Time on L2 Learners' Oral Test Performance

The effect of planning on second language (L2) learners' oral performance is a hotly debated topic in the field of second language acquisition. However, studies on the effect of different amounts of planning time have been quite limited, especially in a testing context. The present study investigated the effects of different lengths of pretask planning time (nil, 30 seconds, 1 minute, 2 minutes, 3 minutes, and 5 minutes) on L2 learners' oral test performance in terms of both the quantity and quality of the test-takers' linguistic output using discourse analytical measures. The findings suggest that the provision of planning time positively influenced both the quantity and quality of oral production; of the three aspects of quality (fluency, accuracy, and complexity), accuracy improved the most, with 1-minute planning time being the threshold that led to significant improvement. Concerning different planning lengths, a positive effect of planning was not always observed in line with the increase of time: too short a time (e.g., 30 seconds) was inadequate for improvement, whereas too long a time (e.g., 5 minutes) engendered a diminishing effect.

A multifaceted approach to investigating pre-task planning effects on paired oral test performance

Despite the growing popularity of paired format speaking assessments, the effects of pre-task planning time on performance in these formats are not yet well understood. For example, some studies have revealed the benefits of planning but others have not. Using a multifaceted approach including analysis of the process of speaking performance, the aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of pre-task planning in a paired format. Data were collected from 32 students who carried out two decision-making tasks in pairs, under planned and unplanned conditions. The study used analyses of rating scores, discourse analytic measures, and conversation analysis (CA) of test-taker discourse to gain insight into co-constructing processes. A post-test questionnaire was also administered to understand the participants’ perceptions toward planned and unplanned interactions. The results from rating scores and discourse analytic measures revealed that planning had limited effect on performance, and analysis of the questionnaires did not indicate clear differences between the two conditions. CA, however, identified the possibility of a contrastive mode of discourse under the two planning conditions, raising concerns that planning might actually deprive test-takers of the chance to demonstrate their abilities to interact collaboratively.

Can planning time compensate for individual differences in working memory capacity?

Language learners with high working memory capacity have an advantage, all other factors being equal, during the second language acquisition (SLA) process; therefore, identifying a pedagogical intervention that can compensate for low working memory capacity would be advantageous to language learners and instructors. Extensive research on the provision of planning time before non-native speakers complete various oral and written tasks in the target language suggests that planning time might provide the processing support needed to overcome the constraints of low working memory capacity. This article reports on an empirical aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) study of the interaction of working memory capacity and pre-task planning time with a population of English as a second language (ESL) learners in the USA. Learners were asked to complete two different oral, monologic, picture-guided narratives in two conditions: with pre-task planning time and without pre-task planning time. The results did not show an effect for the interaction of working memory capacity with pre-task planning time; that is, the results demonstrate the facilitative effect of planning time on learner fluency for participants with both high and low working memory capacity. In addition, the results demonstrate that learners with pre-task planning time produce more fluent and more complex speech than learners without pre-task planning time, with mixed results for accuracy. Finally, the results suggest that planning time may have a carry-over effect and benefit the fluency and complexity of learners’ speech during subsequent, unplanned tasks.

The Effect of Pre-Task Planning Time on L2 Learners’ Narrative Writing Performance

Building on Baddeley’s cognitive psychology (2007) and Skehan’s Limited Attentional Capacity Model (2009), this article reports a study of the effects of pre-task planning time (strategic planning time) on Malaysian English learners’ written narratives elicited by means of a picture composition. 50 first-year undergraduate students studying at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Penang were served as the participants of this study. All the participants achieved band four from Malaysian University English Test (MUET). They were randomly selected and divided into two equal groups of with pre-task planning time and without pre-task planning time. Each group was asked to narrate a story under the two different conditions. Participants in pre-task planning time group was required to plan for their performance for 10 minutes and take notes before they performed the tasks, whilst the participants in without pre-task planning time group began writing immediately. The learners’ writing performance was measured for complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF). Independent samples t-test was employed to analyze the collected data. Results indicated that pre-task planning time had no effect on the accuracy of the learners’ writing performances, but led to more fluency and complexity.