Preexperimental Associations Research Articles

Distinguishing familiarity from fluency for the compound word pair effect in associative recognition.

We examined whether processing fluency contributes to associative recognition of unitized pre-experimental associations. In Experiments 1A and 1B, we minimized perceptual fluency by presenting each word of pairs on separate screens at both study and test, yet the compound word (CW) effect (i.e., hit and false-alarm rates greater for CW pairs with no difference in discrimination) did not reduce. In Experiments 2A and 2B, conceptual fluency was examined by comparing transparent (e.g., hand bag) and opaque (e.g., rag time) CW pairs in lexical decision and associative recognition tasks. Lexical decision was faster for transparent CWs (Experiment 2A) but in associative recognition, the CW effect did not differ by CW pair type (Experiment 2B). In Experiments 3A and 3B, we examined whether priming that increases processing fluency would influence the CW effect. In Experiment 3A, CW and non-compound word pairs were preceded with matched and mismatched primes at test in an associative recognition task. In Experiment 3B, only transparent and opaque CW pairs were presented. Results showed that presenting matched versus mismatched primes at test did not influence the CW effect. The CW effect in yes-no associative recognition is due to reliance on enhanced familiarity of unitized CW pairs.

Intentional and incidental encoding of item and associative information in the directed forgetting procedure

The intentional and incidental encoding of individual words and associations between pairs of words was examined using the item-based directed forgetting procedure. Item and associative recognition were both greater for word pairs followed by a remember (R) cue than a forget (F) cue. Associative discrimination for F-cued pairs was above chance in most conditions, demonstrating that relational informational is encoded incidentally. Item, but not associative, discrimination increased with longer presentation time prior to the cue, indicating that the encoding of item information benefited from maintenance rehearsal but the encoding of relational information did not (Experiments 1A and 1B). The incidental encoding of associations was, though, greater for pairs of words with pre-experimental associations (e.g., needle point), but these pre-experimental associations did not improve memory for pairs that participants tried to remember (Experiment 2). This pattern of results for R- and F-cued pairs mimicked the age-related associative deficit observed by Ahmad, Fernandes, and Hockley (Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 22, 452-472 2015) in comparisons of associative memory between young and older adults.

Improving associative memory in older adults with unitization

We examined if unitization inherent preexperimentally could reduce the associative deficit in older adults. In Experiment 1, younger and older adults studied compound word (CW; e.g., store keeper) and noncompound word (NCW; e.g., needle birth) pairs. We found a reduction in the age-related associative deficit such that older but not younger adults showed a discrimination advantage for CW relative to NCW pairs on a yes–no associative recognition test. These results suggest that CW compared to NCW word pairs provide schematic support that older adults can use to improve their memory. In Experiment 2, reducing study time in younger adults decreased associative recognition performance, but did not produce a discrimination advantage for CW pairs. In Experiment 3, both older and younger adults showed a discrimination advantage for CW pairs on a two-alternative forced-choice recognition test, which encourages greater use of familiarity. These results suggest that test format influenced young adults’ use of familiarity during associative recognition of unitized pairs, and that older adults rely more on familiarity than recollection for associative recognition. Unitization of preexperimental associations, as in CW pairs, can alleviate age-related associative deficits.

Effects of resource demanding processing on context memory for context-related versus context-unrelated items

In two experiments, context memory was compared between conditions of higher versus lower cognitive load. The ease of the item–context binding was manipulated using words whose meaning was preexperimentally related versus unrelated to context (colour). Experiment 1 showed that an item generation task may lead to a decrease in memory for font colour without enhancing item recognition. Experiment 2 used a dual-task paradigm, that is, participants performed a concurrent task during the study phase of the memory task. The divided-attention condition decreased both item and context memory. However, in both experiments, the influence of resource demanding conditions on context memory was apparent only when the item–context binding process was not facilitated by preexperimental associations.

Employment of a Multi-measure Approach as a Vehicle for Monitoring Encoding and Retrieval Dynamics: The Case of Semantically Related Words

Several recent studies have indicated that retrieval, unlike encoding, is only minimally affected by dividing attention, but is associated with significant secondary task costs. The reported experiment manipulated the strength of pre-experimental semantic associations, using a cued-recall paradigm and a multi-measure approach. This allowed the assessment of accuracy and latency of retrievals, as well as of overall attentional costs and the temporal distribution of attentional costs incurred by these retrievals. By simultaneously inspecting the different measures, we identified a common set of retrieval types and retrieval components. The results presented different patterns for semantically related or un-related words under full or divided attention as a function of the dependent measure used. The results emphasize the advantage of using multi-measure approach to the uncovering of different properties of cognitive processes.

THE CONTEXTUALLY CONTROLLED, FEATURE‐MEDIATED CLASSIFICATION OF SYMBOLS

The classification of names of people or objects based on the features acquired by the names and the sorting instructions provided is a commonplace occurrence. For example, given the names Renoir, Pollock, James and Voltaire the average adult would be able to classify them differentially based on the instruction to classify them based on vocation or nationality. In general, such a repertoire reflects the reclassification of symbols (i.e, the names of individuals) in terms of contextual cues (instructions to sort by vocation or nationality) and the features acquired by the symbols (the specific nationalities and vocations). The present experiment studied this phenomenon with the use of arbitrary stimuli that did not have clear preexperimental associations. Two of 4 participants classified the symbols into different equivalence classes based on the prevailing contextual cues and the features that had been acquired by the symbols. Using an ABA reversal design we then demonstrated that 1 participant classified the symbols in accordance with the contextual cues and acquired features when present, but not in the absence of the contextual cues. A 3rd participant showed symbol classification that differed from that predicted by the procedures, and the 4th classified the symbols based on one set of features but not on context. These data describe one set of conditions that could account for the establishment of complex classification repertoires that occur in natural settings.

The Hippocampus Supports Recognition Memory for Familiar Words but Not Unfamiliar Faces

Bilateral damage to the human hippocampus profoundly impairs the ability to form long-term, consciously accessible memories, producing a classic amnesic syndrome. However, the effect of hippocampal damage on our ability to recognize items via a feeling of familiarity is hotly disputed. Dual-process theory predicts no effect, whereas declarative memory theory predicts impairment of all types of recognition memory. Here, we demonstrate a striking material specificity in the effect of focal hippocampal damage: Recognition memory is impaired for words but intact for faces. The latter finding is incompatible with declarative memory theory, whereas the former constrains dual-process theory by revealing the limitations of postulated extrahippocampal familiarity-based processes. We suggest that the hippocampus boosts recognition of well-known stimuli (high-frequency words) by activating pre-experimental associations that enrich the context of their presentation. By contrast, recognition memory for some kinds of previously unfamiliar stimuli (unfamiliar faces) may be supported by extrahippocampal familiarity-based processes, at least over short intervals.

Associative Encoding and Encoding Specificity in Cued Recall

Summary The present experiment studied the effects of associative encoding (encoding by requiring Ss to generate associations to target words or encoding by supplying Ss with strong pre-experimental associations to the target words) on storage and retrieval in cued recall (N = 120 male and female undergraduates). Recall under intralist cueing was superior to recall under extralist cueing and noncueing; but recall under extralist cueing was not greater than recall under noncueing. A significant input-output interaction showed that intralist cues were more effective for Ss who generated associations than for Ss who were supplied with associations. Recall under a two-second presentation rate was the same as recall under a four-second rate. The discussion of the results indicated that the data were consistent with predictions from the encoding specificity hypothesis, but contrary to those from generation-recognition models.

Preexperimental associations between rights and wrongs in verbal discrimination learning.

Preexperimental associations between rights and wrongs in verbal discrimination learning.

Preexperimental associations between rights and wrongs in verbal discrimination learning.

Preexperimental associations between rights and wrongs in verbal discrimination learning.

Order Information and Free Learning

Subjects asked to recall the 20 items and (not necessarily in) their order on a list took 34% fewer trials to learn the list to three perfect trials than did subjects who were asked just to recall the items. The free learners at first recalled more, but later fewer, items than the ordinal learners. The early ease of free learning is attributed to the use of preexperimental associations and mnemonic mediational devices, and the later superiority of ordinal learning to an efficient comparison of response set with stimulus set, a comparison that permits determination of which items are yet to be learned.

Verbal Discrimination: Re-Pairing, Language Frequency, and Associative Properties of the Stimuli

Four experiments provide evidence that (a) language frequency of the stimuli can influence the rate of learning of a verbal discrimination, (b) re-pairing of the 'correct' and 'incorrect' members of pairs has little effect if introduced from the outset but produces performance decrements if introduced when the list is nearly learned, (c) these re-pairing decrements occur differentially for lists that differ in preexperimental interitem associations, and (d) the intrapair associations formed during the learning of a verbal-discrimination task are not incidental to performance on that task. The present paper reports the results of four experiments on verbaldiscrimination learning. These experiments manipulated the associative properties and the language frequency of stimuli, as well as the pairings of 'right' and 'wrong' items within a list. In a typical verbal-discrimination task, the subject is successively presented pairs of verbal items and must learn which member of each pair has been arbitrarily designated as correct by the experimenter; the pairing of items is constant, but the positions of an item within the pair and of a pair within the list vary from trial to trial. According to the frequency theory of verbal-discrimination learning (Ekstrand, Wallace, and Underwood, 1966), the subject performs this task by discriminating between the subjective frequencies accrued to the 'correct' and 'incorrect' members of each pair in the experimental setting. An item gains frequency increments as a consequence of being seen, given as an overt response, or covertly rehearsed. Correct items build up frequency faster than incorrect items, and the subject comes to be able to respond without error by applying this strategy to all pairs: 'Choose the member with the greater subjective frequency.' If the frequency theory is correct and the subject indeed discriminates between the subjective frequencies elicited by the two members of the pair, rather than between, say, any semantic properties of the words

Differentiation versus unlearning of verbal associations.

Underwood and Postman (1960) theorized that learning of a list requires the unlearning of competing preexperimental associations to the list items. 3 experiments tested this assumption. Experiments I and II showed that obtained extralist and intralist preexperimental associations were not unlearned following the learning of one or two competing lists. Experiment III showed no weakening of natural associations after competing list learning, by latency measures. It was concluded that preexperimental associations were inhibited but not unlearned during list acquisition. The hypothesis was developed that strong associates are differentiated before they can be unlearned, and weaker associates are unlearned more rapidly than they can become differentiated. Underwood and Postman (1960) offered a theoretical account of verbal learning and recall which is based upon the traditional interference model, but which lays stress upon the role of existing language habits. Basic to their theory is the hypothesis that memorization of a list requires the unlearning of competing preexperimental associations to the list items. They recognize that S is no associative tabula rasa, but that he brings to the laboratory prepotent associative tendencies to the stimuli that will be encountered in the learning task, by virtue of long-standing language habits. If 5 must acquire new responses to items in the list, it is asserted that he must first break the older, preexperimental, associative bonds. To quote from Underwood and Postman (1960): As an illustration, assume that the word over is a unit in a serial list. Assume further that, due to long existing language habits,

The Running Memory Span for Words

This experiment investigates the running memory span for English words of high and of low frequency of usage. The running memory span is measured when a sequence of uncertain length is interrupted and the subject is required to recall the most recent part of the message. The span for the two classes of words was studied as a function of the length of the message and amount of prior practice. In the early stages of practice the span varied inversely with frequency of usage and increased with the length of the message. As practice continued, the difference between words of high and low frequency was largely eliminated and there was a relative decline in the span for the longest series. The major variables which are assumed to determine the length in the span are (a) the number and strength of pre-experimental associations of the items; (b) intraserial and interserial interferences developed during exposure to the series, and (c) the subjects' strategies of deliberate rehearsal.

Proactive inhibition as a function of the conditions of transfer

Summary This study investigated long-term proactive inhibition as a function of the conditions of transfer during acquisition. The stimuli were CVC trigrams and the responses were English words. For Group A-B, A-C the successive responses to each stimulus were unrelated, whereas for Group A-B, A-B′ the two responses had strong preexperimental associations. These two conditions represent paradigms of negative and positive transfer, respectively. Both lists were learned to a criterion of one perfect trial and recall of the second list was tested after 48 hours. A Control Group learned and recalled a single list. Speed of List-2 learning was fastest for Group A-B′ and slowest for the Control Group, with Group A-C occupying an intermediate position. The divergence in the speed of acquisition was sufficiently great to produce substantial differences in the amount of overlearning of List-2 associations. Retention of List 2 was lower under both experimental conditions than under the control condition; but the amount of proactive inhibition based on the raw recall scores was significant only for Group A-B, A-C. It wa shown, however, that the differences in degree of List-2 learning resulted in a strong bias favoring superior recall by Group A-B′. When this bias is taken into account, there is evidence for proactive inhibition under conditions of maximal positive transfer as well of negative transfer.