Pre-19th Century Research Articles

Cultural Character Analysis on Architectural Elements of the Chinese Temples’ Buildings before the 19th Century in Central Java

The research provided an in-depth exploration of the architectural nuances of pre-19th century Chinese temples in Central Java, Indonesia, emphasizing their cultural significance and relevance. A detailed examination of a range of temples identified unique architectural features that reflected a sophisticated synthesis of Chinese cultural elements and local Javanese traditions. Applying a qualitative method, the research integrated historical scrutiny with architectural analysis, meticulously examining stylistic attributes, construction methodologies, and decorative patterns typical of these temples. The key discoveries highlight an intricate amalgamation of traditional Chinese architectural principles with native materials and craftsmanship, culminating in a distinctive, hybrid architectural form. This fusion not only symbolizes the cultural convergence and assimilation between Chinese immigrants and the indigenous Javanese during the pre-colonial era but also underscores the role of these temples as pivotal preservers of Chinese cultural heritage in Java. Furthermore, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the diversity within architectural practices and offers insightful perspectives on the historical and socio-cultural dynamics in Central Java. The novelty of the research is anchored in its focused examination of a historically and geographically specific context, its interdisciplinary and thorough approach, the revelation of a unique hybrid architectural style, and its significant insights into the cultural and sociological dimensions of Central Java’s architectural legacy.

Maldivian Chess (Raazuvaa)

Abstract Traditional Maldivian chess rules are presented and their similarity to pre-19th century Turkish chess is discussed, with musings on the potential role of Ottomans in spreading the “new game” invented in Europe – but played in their own manner – throughout the Muslim world and beyond.

ENGLISH EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA: THE STRATEGIC ADOPTION AND POSITIONING OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SCHOOLS

This article analyses British ventures for English education in the Indian subcontinent which had signified the inevitable relevance of English language both for education policy and practice. Looking at the phenomena in pre-19th century context, English language was introduced in the subcontinent for the sake of training Indian interpreters who could also act as mediators between other Indians and the British officers of East India Company. During 19th century, after establishing their rule over the Indian subcontinent, English education was being used as a vehicle of colonial enlightenment. Those were times when English language was introduced as a taught subject side by side with vernacular subjects in schools. While early 20th century had witnessed demands for educational change from within and from without, English language had sustained its status as a compulsory taught subject in schools even as a part of the suggested revisions in education system of the subcontinent. Based on primary data evidence from the public record files of the then Ministry of Education and of Education Commissions, conferences, etc. comprising of British officers and educated Indian leaders, this article provides a significant insight into why and how the British official vision for strategising English language in the mainstream school education of the subcontinent was being carried out.

The role of pre-19th century art in conservation biology: An untapped potential for connecting with nature

Research exploring nature connectedness has shown that these relationships influence worldviews, values, attitudes and behaviors towards nature. In this context, natural areas that are difficult to access, such as aquatic ecosystems, lead to questions concerning the need for mediation tools capable of modulating human behavior through indirect exposure. Art has been recognized as an efficient lever in this objective, as it triggers emotional, cognitive and experiential interactions. Despite a growing interest in integrating art into environmental education, prior research has mainly focused on post-19th century art. We believe, however, that pre-19th century European art presents an opportunity to connect with nature while enhancing historical and cultural heritage. We thus propose a research framework dedicated to the quantifiable study of the interrelations between aesthetic experience, behaviors, and nature connectedness (especially relating to aquatic ecosystems) using a case study approach to examine aquatic nature as represented in pre-19th century European paintings.

Antecedents, and Development of the Sacred Choral Concerto in Russia

"Upon dealing with Russian religious choral music of the 18th century, one may clearly recognize the outlines of a unique genre, the duhovny kontsert, or in other words, the genre of the religious choral concerto. The subject is suppletory, since very few people in Hungary have dealt with pre-19th century Russian music, let alone with choral repertoire. In the present study, we may follow up the legalization and development of polyphony in church music – which was strictly monophonic up until the 1500s – and the different types of multivocal hymns. We will also get to know the Russian composers of the 17th and 18th centuries, who contributed to the genre with their own works. We will receive a detailed description about concertante techniques used in European vocal music, and about their appearance in the 18th century Russia, which was unique to a cappella choral concerto. We will also get to know more about the structure and characteristics of the duhovny kontsert, while taking a glance at the historical background. In the final part of the study, we will see how the genre influenced subsequent eras, and how the stylistic marks and techniques appear in the choral oeuvre of Rachmaninoff. Keywords: Russia, 18th century, church music, choral concerto, Bortniansky, Berezovsky"

Deliberative democracy and historical perspectives on American Indian/Alaska native political decision-making practices

Public deliberation has risen to the forefront of governance as a technique for increasing participation in policy making. Scholars and practitioners have also noted the potential for deliberation to give greater influence to historically marginalized populations, such as Indigenous peoples. However, there has been less attention paid to the potential fit between the ideals of deliberation and the governance and decision making practices of American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) peoples. In this paper, we begin to address this gap by analyzing accounts of AI/AN governance from the perspective of deliberation, and note areas of overlap, synergy, and conflict. We conduct a close reading of key historical and ethnographic accounts of four historical AI/AN contexts—the Iroquois Confederation under the Great Law of Peace, 19th century accounts of the Ojibwa village, the Santa Clara Pueblo government in pre-19th century, and Yup’ik village life in the early 20th century—and a more contemporary case in the form of the Santa Clara Pueblo’s Constitution from the Indian Reorganization Act period. We then apply two sets of key criteria for deliberative democracy—from the scholars Robert Dahl and John Gastil—to these accounts and note the ways in which each system is or is not congruent with these frameworks of deliberation. We find variations between these historical tribal contexts in our analysis. Social components of deliberation, such as respectful discussion and equal opportunities to participate, were partially or fully present in many accounts of governance practices, but it was less clear whether the analytic components, such as discussion of a range of solutions, were included in some forms of tribal governance. We then explore the potential implications of our findings for public deliberation within and in AI/AN tribes. We note that deliberative scholars and practitioners should be wary of overgeneralizing about AI/AN tribes.

The Perceptual Experience of Portraits and Self-Portraits: A Behavioural and Eye-Tracking Study

Studies on the lateralization of facial perception and the asymmetry of facial emotional expressions date back to the 19th century. Several left-side biases have been identified: greater expressivity of the left side of the face, a left cheek bias (i.e. a preference to display one’s left cheek), a left visual field advantage (i.e. a preference and improved performance when stimuli are presented in the left visual field), a left gaze bias (i.e. a preference to direct and to spend more time looking at the left side of centrally presented faces, i.e. the anatomical right side). The simultaneous occurrence of these left-side biases, however, has hardly been studied. Thus, we recorded participants’ visual scan-paths and emotional intensity ratings of the depicted faces of pre-19th century self-portraits (i.e. anatomical left side of the face in the left visual field), portraits (i.e. anatomical left side of the face in the right visual field), and their mirror-reversed formats. Self-portraits evoked greater emotional intensity ratings and shorter latencies of the first fixation than portraits, regardless of their format. In addition, for self-portraits the duration of the first fixation was longer for the anatomical left hemi-face. We hypothesize that the observation of self-portraits may arouse greater sensorimotor engagement in the observer as a result of the greater sensorimotor engagement of the artist while painting them.

On Divinity and Marginalization: Western Christianity and African Spirituality as Impetuses of Gender In/Equality

This paper seeks to determine whether the presence of powerful women in African religious tradition allowed for the existence of similarly powerful women in their society while the apparent absence or disregard for powerful women in Western Christianity resulted in the exclusion of women from the political and social realms. Since many pre-19th century African and European governments were heavily influenced by religion, it was a significant tool of socialization in both contexts. Therefore, the gender dynamics modeled in these belief systems were likely reflected by their respective societies. This paper compares and contrasts women’s positions in African civilization and women’s positions in Europe, drawing on historical accounts and formal research to determine the extent to which religion influenced the governance of the associated countries and how this, in turn, impacted their social structures. Prominent women in African religious tradition such as Aset will be juxtaposed with female rulers such as Hatshepsut and the “male daughters” of the Igbo as examples of the flexibility and respect inherent in African womanhood. To the contrary, the lack of prominent women in Western Christianity will be compared with the historical marginalization of European women and the resulting necessity for feminism. Ultimately this paper argues that the flexibility of gender roles within African spiritual systems resulted in a similar versatility in African politics and societies while the subordination of women in Western Christianity led to the subordination of women in European culture.

Review of surface disinfection protocols in dentistry: a 2019 update.

Disinfection is a crucial aspect of patient care in dentistry. In the pre-19th century era, natural elements like acids, sulfur, mercury, and various alkaline metals were valued for their ability to obliterate pathogens. More recently aerosols, sprays, and disinfectant wipes with more powerful chemicals including quaternary ammonium compounds and aldehydes have become popular. As aerosols fall out of favor due to their health and environmental risks, disinfectant wipes are becoming the most trusted form of clinical sanitization. This article explores the history as well as the current practice of disinfection in the dental profession and further explores the variations in the use of surface disinfection based on the published literature. The current practice guidelines as recommended by agencies like Centers for Disease Control (CDC) were studied and summarized for this review.

Characterisation of 19th and 20th century Chinese paper

The chemical and physical properties of 19th and 20th century Chinese papers were investigated using a variety of material characterisation methods. A reference collection of 178 Chinese papers, dating from 1799 to 1990 was used, and properties such as pH, degree of polymerisation (DP), lignin content, and tensile strength (zero-span) were determined. Most of the papers were of approximately neutral pH, had a low lignin content and DP similar to pre-19th century European rag paper. It was found that the high inhomogeneity and the typical paper thinness affected tensile testing and as a result, a modified method for zero-span tensile strength test was developed. Using near infrared spectroscopy (NIR), proof-of-concept partial least squares (PLS) applications were developed for determination of tensile strength, pH, DP and for dating of the samples. For the latter, using post-1900 papers, the error of cross validation was 13 years. The presence of lignin was modelled using linear discriminant analysis (LDA), where the model could distinguish between high and low lignin content with 88% accuracy. Using one or multiple sheets for transmission NIR spectroscopy led to PLS results of similar quality, which was attributed to material inhomogeneity.

Psychobiography in psychology: Past, present, and future

The present article reviews the history and emerging trends in the field of psychobiography. Five historical periods are highlighted: hagiography and pre-19th century study of lives; Freud and applied psychoanalysis; psychodynamic extensions and personology; modern multi-theoretical models; and psychobiography as interdisciplinary science. The author advocates for a science of psychobiography manifested in expanded and empirically validated theoretical models anchoring research. Further, attention is drawn to the need for more rigorous historiographic research methods weighting first-person sources and incorporating mixed methods designs. Increased attention to ethical and legal issues in the conduct and reporting of psychobiographical studies is also highlighted. Finally, emerging trends in psychobiography related to research production, academic training, and organisational initiatives are presented.

The eastern Australian magnetic inclination record: Dating the recent past and re-assessing the historical geomagnetic archive

A new compilation of historical observations and archaeomagnetic measurements of magnetic inclination for the last 1000 years from eastern Australia (the eastern Australian Inclination Record [ eAIR2012]) has revealed the existence of a well-defined inclination anomaly in the region. Evidence of this magnetic feature has been preserved in sedimentary records from across eastern Australia, though this has not previously been recognised. Analyses of additional sedimentary sequences have confirmed the incidence and timing of this feature, revealing its presence between the 13th and 18th centuries ad. The inclination of the field during this episode appears to have been steeper than at any time since the start of the Holocene. Lake sediment evidence suggests that the anomaly is a composite feature, displaying a distinct peak at cal. ad 1270–1386 (±2 σ uncertainty), reappearing after cal. ad 1431–1651 (±2 σ uncertainty) and disappearing before cal. ad 1822±46 (±2 σ uncertainty). The disappearance of the anomaly is tightly bracketed in the historical record between ad 1770 and 1777. The rapid shift in inclination during the 18th century ad offers considerable potential as a means of dating a critical period of Australian environmental history, an episode that currently lies beyond the reach of established dating methods. This information also provides a valuable constraint on models of regional geomagnetic field change over centennial and millennial timescales. Our examination of the historical record has revealed that the inclination measurements made by the 18th-century French explorer La Pérouse are consistently erroneous. Since La Pérouse’s data make up 13% of the total body of pre-19th century inclination records, the inclusion of these measurements in global compendia of magnetic observations may seriously skew attempts to model the geomagnetic field. We advocate that La Pérouse’s inclination measurements should therefore be employed only with considerable caution.

FROM LEGAL REPRESENTATION TO ADVOCACY: ATTORNEYS AND CLIENTS IN THE OTTOMAN NIZAMIYE COURTS

AbstractProfessional attorneyship emerged in the Ottoman Empire in tandem with the consolidation of the Nizamiye (“regular”) court system during the late 19th century. This article analyzes the emergence of an Ottoman legal profession, emphasizing two developments. First, the Nizamiye courts advanced a formalist legal culture, exhibited, inter alia, by the expansion of legal procedure. Whereas the pre-19th century court of law was highly accessible to lay litigants, the proceduralization of court proceedings in the 19th century limited the legibility of the judicial experience to legal experts, rendering legal counseling almost indispensible in civil and criminal litigation. Second, the reformers made efforts to render state-granted legal license a sign of professional competence, presenting a formal distinction between the old “agents” (vekils), who lacked formal legal training, and the professional “trial attorneys” (dava vekils). In practice, however, lawyers of both categories had to adapt to the Nizamiye formalist culture.

Modelling the impact of land-use change and farm dam construction on hillslope sediment delivery to rivers at the regional scale

Landscapes in southeastern Australia have changed dramatically since the spread of European colonisation in the 19th century. Due to widespread forest clearance for cultivation and grazing, erosion and sediment yields have increased by a factor of more than 150. In the 20th century, erosion and sediment yield were reduced again due to an increasing vegetative cover. Furthermore, during the last decades, thousands of small farm dams were constructed to provide drinking water for cattle. These dams trap a lot of sediment, thereby further reducing sediment delivery from hillslopes to river channels. Changes in sediment delivery since European colonisation are documented in sediment archives. Within this study, these changing rates in hillslope erosion and sediment delivery were modelled using a spatially distributed erosion and sediment delivery model (WATEM/SEDEM) that was calibrated for Australian ecosystems using sediment yield data derived from sedimentation rates in 26 small farm dams. The model was applied to the Murrumbidgee river basin (30,000 km 2) under different land-use scenarios. First, the erosion and sediment yield under pre-European land-use was modelled. Secondly, recent land-use patterns were used in the model. Finally, recent land-use including the impact of farm dams and large reservoirs was simulated. The results show that the WATEM/SEDEM model is capable of predicting the intensity of the geomorphic response to changes in land-use through time. Changes in hillslope erosion and hillslope sediment delivery rates are not equal, illustrating the non-linear response of the catchment. Current hillslope sediment supply to the river channel network is predicted to be 370% higher compared to the pre-European settlement period, yet farm dams have reduced this back to 2.5 times the pre-19th century values. The role of larger reservoirs is even more important as they have reduced the current sediment supply downstream to their pre-European values, thus completely masking the increased hillslope erosion rates from land-use change. However, the model does so far not include valley widening and sediment storage in river systems. Therefore, modelled rates of sediment delivery are lower than observed values.

The Love of Boys in Arabic Poetry of the Early Ottoman Period, 1500 – 1800

The Arabic poetry of the early Ottoman period (1500 – 1800) is still, to a large extent, unexplored territory. The few secondary monographs on the poetry of the period suggest that love-poetry as a rule portrayed a female beloved. In the first part of the article I argue that this is misleading. The portrayed beloved seems often, and perhaps most often, to have been a beardless or downy-cheeked male youth. In the second part of the article, I address the issue of how such poetry should be understood. According to some modern scholars, such pederastic poetry indicates a widespread tolerance of ‘homosexuality’ in the pre-19th century Arabic – Islamic world, despite Islamic legal prohibitions. Other scholars argue that such poetry was cultivated openly because they were conceived to be nothing more than time-honoured literary exercises. I argue that both positions overlook the fact that much of this poetry celebrated a passionate but chaste love in the ‘udhrī tradition, and that Islamic jurists did not consider such love to be prohibited, even if directed at a beardless youth.

Characterisation of a unique ‘asphalt’ sample from the early 19th century Hafkenscheid painting materials collection by analytical pyrolysis MS and GC/MS

Asphalt has been used since antiquity for various purposes and by painters since the 17th century. Asphalt as a pigment material with a known pre-19th century provenance is extremely rare. The analytical pyrolysis techniques of direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry (DTMS) and pyrolysis gas liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) were applied to characterise a unique ‘asphalt’ sample from a painting materials collection dating from the early 19th century. The provenance of this sample was investigated by comparison with a sample from a present day floating asphalt from the Dead Sea. DTMS demonstrated a complex envelope of ions from hydrocarbons ranging past m/z 1000 in both samples. Both samples showed evaporating sets of compounds as well as pyrolysing materials evolving from asphaltenes. Asphaltene network polymers were marked by aliphatic cross-links releasing alkenes and alkanes, and aromatic centres releasing alkylbenzenes, alkylnaphthalenes, alkylanthracenes, alkylphenanthrenes, and alkylbenzothiophenes. Hopanoid hydrocarbons and C-ring monoaromatic steroid hydrocarbons were among the biomarker compounds identified. Particularly striking were homologous series of alkylbenzothiophenes and alkyldibenzothiophenes with long hydrocarbon chains that could be traced with DTMS and confirmed by DTMS/MS. The results indicate that the early 19th century ‘asphalt’ sample from the Hafkenscheid collection is indeed a true asphalt that shows many similarities to the Dead Sea asphalt sample, which is therefore proposed as the possible region of provenance.

A quite different view of Maori origins: Genetic evidence of pre-19th century European settlement in New Zealand.

A quite different view of Maori origins: Genetic evidence of pre-19th century European settlement in New Zealand.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna: an anthropological perspective.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna (HFI) is manifested by the accretion of bone on the inner table of the frontal bone. Despite the vast literature on HFI, ambiguity exists as to its etiology, osteogenesis, demography, and history. This stimulated the present broad-scale study of HFI which included the evaluation of 1,706 early 20th century skulls (1,007 males and 699 females) from the Hamann-Todd and Terry human osteological collections, as well as 2,019 pre-19th century East-Mediterranean, Amerindian, and Central European skulls. In addition, 72 cadavers were dissected for gross inspection and histology. Special attention was paid to the relationship of the brain and meninges to endocranial lesions. HFI is an independent condition, not a symptom of a more generalized syndrome as suggested in the past. It can appear in a variety of forms but each is the result of the same process and probably of the same etiology. Investigators' previous failure to recognize the mild stages of HFI (types A and B) as an early form of the general HFI process led to erroneous statistics and interpretations of observations. HFI should also be considered a phenomenon separate from HCI, hyperostosis cranialis diffusa (HCD), and other endostoses, even when it appears in association with them. To avoid ambiguity and facilitate the description of cranial hyperostoses, uniform nomenclature (HFI, HCD) has been recommended. HFI is rarely seen in historic populations, regardless of geographical origin. It is most commonly found among females and is believed to be associated with prolonged estrogen stimulation. While its magnitude of manifestation and frequency are much higher in females, HFI is not a purely female phenomenon. Males with hormonal disturbances such as atrophic testis were found to manifest HFI type D. HFI is associated with age insofar as it is much less frequent in females under 40 years of age. Although advanced cases of HFI (types C and D) have been observed in individuals as young as 40 years of age, it is more frequently found after age 60. The frequency of HFI type D will not increase from age 60. Type-predicted analysis by cohort reveals significant ethnic differences. Changes in African American (AA) females appear earlier in life and progress more rapidly than in European American (EA) females. Analysis of radiographs shows a discrepancy between the anatomic prevalence of HFI and its radiological recognition, which is very poor for mild cases. This apparently resulted in the misconceptions that HFI is entirely an old-age phenomenon, and that it is exclusively female. Histological analysis shows that the inner table along with the closely attached dural layer play a major role in the osteogenesis of HFI. Contrary to previous models, no evidence for diploe or ectocranial plate involvement was found. Cadaver study suggests that the predilection for the frontal area may be related to an altered blood supply and/or vascular stretching.

German Immigrants in Britain during the Nineteenth Century, 1815-1914

The pre-19th century background German migration to Britain during the 19th century residential, age and gender and occupational distribution ethnic organizations - religion, philanthropy, culture and politics British attitudes towards Germany, Germans and German immigrants.

"Tarogato" as a Regional Instrument

The designation t6rogatd refers to two different instruments: one was a pre-19th century instrument, the other was one consummated at the end of the 19th century. The first was called Kegeloboe by Curt Sachs' and was understood to denote all woodwind instrument types which existed with double reed in Asia and the Near East. On the frequency of its use in the Near East, see also Farmer's book on Islam.2 In Hungary it was first used as defined by Schalmey, e.g. in the Latin glossary of Murmelius (no. 2490) in 1533,3 and this use prevailed in the 17th-18th centuries. The Ottomans appeared in this part of Europe in those centuries. They brought along this Schalmey-type, together with lots of other instruments, which was named in Hungarian tarogat6. This became the favourite instrument of the soldiers in camp during one of the first Hungarian wars of liberation after the 150year-long Ottomanoccupation, and of its leader Ferenc Rdk6czi, whose figure is highlit by a wide repertory of songs. That is why the t6rogat6 as an instrument is closely related to the stock of Raik6czi songs. So far, then, it is not a regional speciality but an instrument type which was brought to Hungary by the Ottomans: a conical woodwind instrument with holes, employing a double reed. The other type displays the regional specificity developed in the 19th century. In the first half of the 19th century, the original instrument was still in use in the region. There were artists including Andras Szuk4 who