Practitioners Of Transcendental Meditation Research Articles

Spirituality and Transcendental meditation practitioners’ experiences in South Africa and Ghana

ABSTRACT Spirituality involves being in harmony with the cosmos or nature and a willingness to engage in good works for the sake of mankind; for instance, love for one another, care for the environment, and the production and protection of the common good for society. Spirituality could also be defined as the connectedness with nature or the cosmos, seeing beyond the circumstances of one’s limitation and the suffering one encounters (transcendence) and understanding one purpose and meaning of one existence. In an African context, spirituality is experienced by many people as being in touch with one’s spirit which is an indication of integration of the body with the spirit and without this spiritual aspect of the essence of oneself, it becomes natural to see and feel problem. When one is permanently established on the platform of the Transcendental Being, life is lived in eternal freedom and enjoyment of blissfulness throughout the day. In this vein, the self silently witnesses daily activity. This is the essence of TM practice where practitioners experience spiritual upliftment. Though much research has been done on TM globally, the spiritual lived experiences of the practitioners have not been adequately explored, especially in South Africa and Ghana. Therefore, the study sought to explore the spiritual lived experiences of TM practitioners in South Africa and Ghana. The study adopted the constructivist paradigm through the lens of phenomenology. In all, 28 participants took part in the study − 14 participants from South Africa and another 14 from Ghana. Open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data for the study. Husserl’s transcendental phenomenological data analysis was used to analyze and synthesize the descriptions of the spiritual lived experiences of the TM practitioners. The results suggest that TM act as a catalyst for the spiritual growth of the participants from both countries and that they experienced spiritual upliftment with the practice of TM. However, two participants both females were of the view that TM has nothing to do with their spirituality. It is the recommendation of this study that people who seek a spiritual path to discover their purpose and meaning in life explore this technique although there are other paths toward spiritual enlightenment. For instance, Christian’s contemplations player and Sufism.

Transcendental Meditation practitioners show reduced expression of the Conserved Transcriptional Response to Adversity

Background and objectivesA recent exploratory study of transcriptional effects of long-term practice of Transcendental Meditation (TM) technologies found evidence for altered expression of genes associated with health and disease. In the present secondary analysis of those data, we test the more specific hypothesis that this sample of long-term practitioners shows a significant reduction in markers of the “Conserved Transcriptional Response to Adversity” (CTRA), an RNA profile characterized by up-regulated inflammation and down-regulated Type I interferon (IFN) activity. Materials and methodsData come from a previously published study providing genome-wide transcriptional profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy, 38-year practitioners of TM technologies and matched controls (n = 12, mean age 65). The current analysis specifically tests for differential expression of a previously established CTRA indicator gene score, with cross-validation by promoter-based bioinformatic analysis of CTRA-typical differences in transcription factor activity and monocyte subset cellular origins. ResultsCompared to controls, the TM group showed lower expression of a pre-specified set of CTRA indicator genes. These effects were accompanied by genome-wide indications of down-regulated pro-inflammatory transcription factor activity (NF-κB, AP-1), up-regulated activity of Interferon Response Factors (IRF) and reduced transcriptional activity of classical monocytes. Conclusions: A sample of long-term practitioners of TM showed reduced CTRA gene expression in PBMC compared to matched controls, supporting the likely value of further research to evaluate causality and specificity of this potential mechanism of health benefits in meditators.

Fatores associados à prática da meditação transcendental em idosos

Aims: To evaluate factors associated with the practice of transcendental meditation (TM) in the elderly. Methods: Cross-sectional study, with the inclusion of 113 older adults and women, 60 of them practitioners and 53 non-MT practitioners. A semi-structured questionnaire was used as an instrument, composed of sociodemographic, health and TM practice data. Data analysis was performed using the chi-square test and binary logistic regression. Results: The average age of practitioners was lower than that of non-practitioners (63.7 ± 4.0 vs. 69.1 ± 6.6 years). Most of the sample had completed higher education (f = 45; 75%; p = 0.001) and received more than three minimum wages (f = 40; 67.8%; p = 0.001). In the group of TM practitioners there was a greater proportion of individuals with excellent / good self-perceived health (91.7% vs 77.4%; p = 0.034), and less hospitalization in the last semester (5% vs 24.5 %; p = 0.003). Older adults who denied hospitalization or the presence of diabetes mellitus (DM) presented, respectively, 5.7 (95% CI OR 1.1 - 28.9) and 4.9 (95% CI OR 1.3 - 19.2) times chance to practice MT. The practice of TM is 80% more likely to be practiced by older adults with better self-perceived health (OR 0.17; 95% CI 0.03 - 0.96). Conclusion: The practice of a holistic activity such as TM is associated with better self-perceived health than older adults of the same age, and less chance of hospitalization in the last semester and the presence of DM.

Does the MRI/fMRI Procedure Itself Confound the Results of Meditation Research? An Evaluation of Subjective and Neurophysiological Measures of TM Practitioners in a Simulated MRI Environment.

Early research into meditation, including Transcendental Meditation (TM), relied exclusively on EEG to measure brain activity during meditation practice. Since the advent of neural imaging, MRI, and later fMRI, have dominated this field. Unfortunately, the use of this technology rests on the questionable assumption that lying down in a confining tube while exposed to very loud sounds would not interfere with the meditation practice. The present study was designed to assess the effects of the fMRI procedure on both the subjective and neurophysiological responses of short and long-term TM practitioners. Twenty-three TM practitioners volunteered to participate in this study: 11 short-term meditators, averaging 2.2 years practice, and 12 long-term meditators, averaging 34.8 years. The repeated-measures design included two activities for each participant, eyes-closed rest, and TM practice, in each of three conditions: sitting quietly in an upright position (normal TM practice); lying quietly in a supine position; and lying, with earplugs, inside a simulated fMRI tube (simMRI), while exposed to 110 dB recordings of an actual fMRI machine. Subjective experiences were collected after each activity in each condition. Physiological arousal was recorded using skin conductance levels. Scalp EEG was averaged into eight frequency bands within frontal and parietal leads; eLORETA software was used to explore the 3-D cortical distribution of EEG sources. During the simMRI condition, participants reported having more shallow meditation experiences, and greater agitation/distraction. Skin conductance levels paralleled self-reports, decreasing least during the simMRI condition. Frontal and parietal power decreased from sitting to simMRI in the alpha2 through gamma bands. Parietal power was higher during rest compared to TM in the alpha1 through beta2 bands. Frontal and parietal alpha1 coherence were highest during the simMRI condition. The eLORETA analysis revealed that the default mode network was more active during TM when sitting compared to the simMRI condition. The responses to the supine condition were generally between sitting and simMRI, with some significant exceptions. In conclusion, these data indicate that the fMRI procedure itself (high dB noise; lying down) strongly influences subjective and neurophysiological responses during meditation practice, and may therefore confound the interpretation of results from fMRI studies.

Neurophysiological, cognitive-behavioral and neurochemical effects in practitioners of transcendental meditation - A literature review.

The term meditation can be used in many different ways, according to the technique to which it refers. Transcendental Meditation (MT) is one of these techniques. TM could serve as a model for research on spiritual meditation, unlike the meditation techniques based on secular knowledge. The purpose of the present study is to conduct a bibliographic review to organize scientific evidence on the effects of TM on neurophysiology, neurochemistry, and cognitive and behavioral aspects of its practitioners. To conduct this critical narrative review of the literature, we searched for scientific papers on the PubMed database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The keywords used in the search were Transcendental Meditation, Neuroscience of meditation e Meditation and behavior. We selected 21 papers that analyzed different aspects that could be altered through meditation practice. We concluded that TM has positive and significant documentable neurochemical, neurophysiological, and cognitive-behavioral effects. Among the main effects are the reduction of anxiety and stress (due to the reduction of cortisol and norepinephrine levels), increase of the feeling of pleasure and well-being (due to the increase of the synthesis and release of dopamine and serotonin), and influence on memory recall and possible consolidation. Further studies are needed using creative and innovative methodological designs that analyze different neural circuitry and verify the clinical impact on practitioners.

EEG microstates during different phases of Transcendental Meditation practice.

Two phases of Transcendental Meditation (TM)-transcending and undirected mentation-were compared to each other and to task-free resting using multichannel EEG recorded from 20 TM practitioners. An EEG microstate analysis identified four classes of microstates which were labeled A, B, C and D, based on their similarity to previously published classes. For each class of microstates, mean duration, coverage and occurrence were computed. Resting and transcending differed from undirected mentation with decreased prominence of Class A and increased prominence of Class D microstates. In addition, transcending showed decreased prominence of Class C microstates compared to undirected mentation. Based on previous findings on the functional significance of the microstate classes, the results indicate an increased reference to reality and decreased visualization during resting and transcending compared to undirected mentation. Also, our results indicate decreased saliency of internally generated mentations during transcending compared to undirected mentation reflecting a more detached and less evaluative processing. It is proposed that the continuous cycling through these two phases of meditation during a TM session might facilitate and train the flexible modulation of the parameters of these microstates of these particular classes which are known to be altered in psychiatric disorders. This might promote beneficial stabilizing effects for the practitioner of TM.

Levels of immune cells in transcendental meditation practitioners.

Context:Relationships between mind and body have gradually become accepted. Yogic practices cause modulation of the immune system. Transcendental meditation (TM) is a specific form of mantra meditation. We reported previously different plasma levels of catecholamines and pituitary hormones in TM practitioners comparing with a control group, and patterns of the daytime secretion of these hormones different from those normally described.Aims:The aim of the following study is to evaluate the immune system in these meditation practitioners, by determining leukocytes and lymphocytes subsets.Methods:TM group consisted of 19 subjects who regularly practice either TM or the more advanced Sidhi-TM technique. A control group consisted of 16 healthy subjects who had not previously used any relaxation technique. Total leukocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes were counted by an automated quantitative hematology analyzer, whereas lymphocytes subsets were determined by flow cytometry. Samples were taken from each subject at 0900 h after an overnight fast.Results:The results indicated that the TM group had higher values than the control group in CD3+CD4−CD8+ lymphocytes (P < 0.05), B lymphocytes (P < 0.01) and natural killer cells (P < 0.01), whereas CD3+CD4+CD8− lymphocytes showed low levels in meditation practitioners (P < 0.001). No significant differences were observed in total leukocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, total lymphocytes or CD3+ lymphocytes comparing both groups.Conclusions:The technique of meditation studied seems to have a significant effect on immune cells, manifesting in the different circulating levels of lymphocyte subsets analyzed. The significant effect of TM on the neuroendocrine axis and its relationship with the immune system may partly explain our results.

Neurofeedback-Enhanced Gamma Brainwaves from the Prefrontal Cortical Region of Meditators and Non-Meditators and Associated Subjective Experiences

This study had two aims: (1) to explore the inner experiences associated with increased production of gamma brainwaves in an initial neurofeedback experience; and (2) to measure and compare neurofeedback-enhanced increased output from the prefrontal cortical region of meditators and non-meditators, using the Peak Brain Happiness Trainer(™) neurofeedback system. This was a controlled pilot study; it involved a single session per subject. The research was conducted in a nonprofit laboratory in the United States. There were 12 adults in 2 groups (N = 12): 6 practitioners of Transcendental Meditation(™) and six controls. The measures were self-assessed inner experiences and measurements of clarified gamma output at the prefrontal cortical region. (1) Self-assessed descriptions were comparable for both groups; (2) the associations of 16 supplied descriptors with the initial neurofeedback experience were comparable for both groups and showed highest scores for "happy" (p < 0.0001) and "loving" (p < 0.0001), and lowest scores for "stressed" (p < 0.0001) and "disappointed" (p < 0.0001); (3) baseline measures were comparable for both groups; (4) both groups were able to increase gamma brainwaves using neurofeedback (p < 0.01); and (5) meditators produced greater increases over controls (p = 0.02). The inner experience associated with increased clarified gamma amplitude from the prefrontal cortex apparently involves positive emotions of happiness and love, along with reduced stress. Meditators achieved greater increases in the gamma band from the prefrontal cortical region over controls during an initial neurofeedback session.

Medial profrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in the generation of alpha activity induced by transcendental meditation: a magnetoencephalographic study.

Previous EEG studies have shown that transcendental meditation (TM) increases frontal and central alpha activity. The present study was aimed at identifying the source of this alpha activity using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) simultaneously on eight TM practitioners before, during, and after TM. The magnetic field potentials corresponding to TM-induced alpha activities on EEG recordings were extracted, and we attempted to localize the dipole sources using the multiple signal classification (MUSIC) algorithm, equivalent current dipole source analysis, and the multiple spatio-temporal dipole model. Since the dipoles were mapped to both the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), it is suggested that the mPFC and ACC play an important role in brain activity induced by TM.

Anatomic Characterization of Human Ultra-Weak Photon Emission in Practitioners of Transcendental Meditation™and Control Subjects

Research on human ultra-weak photon emission (UPE, biophoton emission) has raised the question whether a typical human emission anatomic percentage distribution pattern exists in addition to individual subject overall anatomic summation intensity differences. The lowest UPE intensities were observed in two subjects who regularly meditate. Spectral analysis of human UPE has suggested that ultra-weak emission is probably, at least in part, a reflection of free radical reactions in a living system. It has been documented that various physiologic and biochemical shifts follow the long-term practice of meditation and it is inferred that meditation may impact free radical activity. To systematically quantify, in subjects with long-term transcendental meditation (TM) experience and subjects without this experience, the UPE emission of the anterior torso, head and neck plus the hands in an attempt to document the differences by the two groups. Subjects were 20 men reported to be healthy and nonsmokers. Each of the subjects in the meditation group had practiced TM twice daily for at least the past 10 years. UPE in 20 subjects was recorded in a dark room using a highly sensitive, cooled photomultiplier system designed for manipulation in three directions. The protocol for multisite registration of spontaneous emission includes recording of 12 anatomic locations of anterior torso, head, and hands. Data demonstrate emission intensities that are lower in TM practitioners as compared to control subjects. The percent contribution of emission from most anatomic locations was not significantly different for TM practitioners and control subjects. Exceptions are the contributions of throat and palm. In subjects with long-term TM experience, the UPE emission is different from control subjects. Data support the hypothesis that free radical reactions can be influenced by TM.

Enhanced EEG alpha time-domain phase synchrony during Transcendental Meditation: Implications for cortical integration theory

Information transfer and integration in the brain that leads to high-level cognitive processes requires neuronal coordination. High phase synchronization (zero-lag) in fast frequencies is implicated in integrating sensory events. Alpha EEG activity, long regarded as a passive “idling” frequency, is now being implicated in this integrative function. As an example, in brain pathology decreased alpha phase synchrony is correlated with a decline in cognitive function. Transcendental Meditation (TM) provides an interesting starting point to study neuronal coordination because the “transcending” experience is a baseline state of consciousness, a condition of restful alertness without cognitive activity. Previous work on TM, reported to increase numerous indices of mind–body health, has been shown to increase neural coherence in the alpha band. In this study 15 subjects practicing the TM technique were investigated for changes in alpha phase synchrony. A time-domain method was used to measure millisecond phase shifts in 19 electrodes in long-term practitioners of TM in two conditions: eyes-closed resting and meditation. Significant reductions in millisecond phase lag were found during the meditation condition as compared to the eyes-closed resting condition in 30 of 49 long-range electrode pairings between frontal and occipito-parietal areas. Under the same conditions, twelve control subjects without meditation experience showed no change in alpha phase synchrony over the same time period. It is proposed that enhanced phase synchrony in the alpha frequency during meditation may improve functional integration and may have implications for performance and mind–body health. A short proposal for a phase synchrony model of consciousness is included.

Acute effects of transcendental meditation on hemodynamic functioning in middle-aged adults.

Increased peripheral vasoconstriction (ie, total peripheral resistance, or TPR) has been implicated as playing an important role in the early development of essential hypertension. Some studies have demonstrated that Transcendental Meditation (TM) reduces high blood pressure, but the hemodynamic adjustments behind these blood pressure reductions have not been elucidated. The aim of this study was to provide a preliminary investigation of the acute effects of TM on TPR. Subjects were 32 healthy adults (16 women and 16 men; 30 white and two African American; mean age, 46.4 +/- 3.9 years). Subjects were divided into a TM group of long-term TM practitioners (eight white women, nine white men, and one African American man; mean years of twice-daily TM practice, 22.4 +/- 6.7) and a control group (eight white women, five white men, and one African American man). Hemodynamic functioning was assessed immediately before and during three conditions: 20 minutes of rest with eyes open (all subjects), 20 minutes of TM (TM group), and 20 minutes of eyes-closed relaxation (control group). During eyes-open rest, the TM group had decreases in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and TPR, compared with increases in the control group (SBP: -2.5 vs. +2.4 mm Hg, p < .01; TPR: -0.7 vs. +0.5 mm Hg/liter per minute, p < .004). During TM, there was a greater decrease in SBP due to a concomitantly greater decrease in TPR compared with the control group during eyes-closed relaxation (SBP: -3.0 vs. +2.1 mm Hg, p < .04; TPR: -1.0 vs. +0.3 mm Hg/liter per minute, p < .03). TPR decreased significantly during TM. Decreases in vasoconstrictive tone during TM may be the hemodynamic mechanism responsible for reduction of high blood pressure over time. The results of this study provide a preliminary contribution to the understanding of the underlying hemodynamic mechanisms responsible for the beneficial influence of TM on cardiovascular risk factors.

ACTH and β-endorphin in transcendental meditation

INFANTE, J. R., F. PERAN, M. MARTINEZ, A. ROLDAN, R. POYATOS, C. RUIZ, F. SAMANIEGO AND F. GARRIDO. ACTH and β-endorphin in Transcendental Meditation. PHYSIOL BEHAV 64(3) 311–315, 1998.—We have evaluated the effect of Transcendental Meditation (TM) on the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-adrenal axis diurnal rhythms through the determination of hormone levels. Blood samples were taken at 0900 hours. and at 2000 hours. These samples were taken from 18 healthy volunteers who regularly practice TM and from nine healthy non-meditators. Cortisol, β-endorphin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) were measured at both hours. TM practitioners showed no diurnal rhythm for ACTH and for β-endorphin (ACTH, pg/mL, mean ± SE; 13.8 ± 1.2–12.1 ± 1.5/β-endorphin, pg/mL; 14.4 ± 1.5–17.2 ± 1.9, at 0900 hours and 2000 hours, respectively), in contrast to control subjects, who showed normal diurnal rhythm for these hormones and for cortisol (ACTH, pg/mL; 19.4 ± 1.9–11.9 ± 2.2/β-endorphin, pg/mL; 25.4 ± 1.7–17.7 ± 1.1/Cortisol, ng/mL; 201.4 ± 13.2–71.3 ± 6.5, at 0900–2000 hours, respectively, p < 0.01 in the three cases). Practitioners of TM with similar anxiety levels to those of the control group showed a different pattern in the daytime secretion of pituitary hormones. TM thus appears to have a significant effect on the neuroendocrine axis. Because cortisol levels had a normal pattern in the TM group, these results may be due to a change in feedback sensitivity caused by this mental technique.

Elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs.

Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels were measured in 270 men and 153 women who were experienced practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs, mental techniques practiced twice daily, sitting quietly with the eyes closed. These were compared according to sex and 5-year age grouping to 799 male and 453 female nonmeditators. The mean DHEA-S levels in the TM group were higher in all 11 of the age groups measured in women and in 6 of 7 5-year age groups over 40 in men. There were no systematic differences in younger men. Simple regression using TM-group data revealed that this effect was independent of diet, body mass index, and exercise. The mean TM-group levels measured in all women and in the older men were generally comparable to those of nonmeditator groups 5 to 10 years younger. These findings suggest that some characteristics of TM practitioners are modifying the age-related deterioration in DHEA-S secretion by the adrenal cortex.

Ventilatory Response to CO2. I I. Studies in Neurotic Psychiatric Patients and Practitioners of Transcendental Meditation*

The prominence of respiratory symptoms in patients with neurotic psychiatric disorders is noted and the literature on the control of respiration is reviewed to attempt to explain this finding. A previous study demonstrated a positive correlation between the ventilatory response to CO2 (S) and neurotic personality traits in a group of normal subjects. This study attempted to follow up this finding and hypothesized that a group of neurotically disturbed patients would have a higher S value and a group of individuals who practiced a calming technique such as transcendental meditation (TM) would have a lower S value than normal subjects. The second hypothesis was confirmed, but not the first, in that the neurotically disturbed patients had the lowest mean values for S of the three groups, rather than the highest. Particular characteristics of the sample of psychiatric patients cast doubt, however, on the validity of this finding. Three additional findings of this study were that anxious, depressive, and hyperventilating subject groups were no different from one another in terms of S values; that very experienced TM practitioners (sidhas) could significantly lower their ventilatory response to CO2 in the meditating state as compared to the nonmeditating alert state; and that the S value did not increase in two male subjects with endogenous depression after successful treatment with electroconvulsive therapy.

Meditation and Hemispheric Specialization I: Absorbed Attention in Long-Term Adherence

The hypothesis that meditation facilitates cognitive processing of the right hemisphere (RH) and impairs processing of the left hemisphere (LH) was tested in three groups of matched subjects: long-term practitioners of Transcendental Meditation (TM), non-meditators, and novice TM practitioners who were followed for 3–5 months to identify drop-outs. A test battery of verbal, musical, and spatial tests yielded performance data for LH- and RH-mediated cognitive abilities. Interpreting the data gathered in terms of current cognitive models of memory processing, we conclude that, prior to learning TM, the successfully adherent meditator is predisposed to readily alter his/her attentional focus from a LH dominant to a RH dominant cognitive mode. A clinical implication in the assessment of this trait of absorbed attention may be valuable to therapists in choosing whether to use meditation as an adjunct to psychotherapy.

Effects of meditation on brainstem auditory evoked potentials.

Brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) were measured in five advanced practitioners of Transcendental Meditation (TM) to determine whether such responses would reflect reported increases in perceptual acuity to auditory stimuli following meditation. The BAEP provides an objective physiological index of auditory function at a subcortical level. Repeated measures of the BAEPs of TM practitioners were taken before and after a period of meditation and were compared with those of age-matched controls. Peak latencies as well as interwave latencies between major BAEP components were evaluated. No pre-postmeditation differences for experimental subjects were observed at low stimulus intensities (0--35 dB). At moderate intensities (40--50 dB), latency of the inferior collicular wave (wave V) increased following meditation, but at higher stimulus intensities (55--70 dB), latency of this wave was slightly decreased. Comparison of slopes and intercepts of stimulus intensity-latency functions indicates a possible effect of meditation on brainstem activity.

No Effect of Transcendental Meditation on Left Ventricular Function

Brief Reports1 February 1978No Effect of Transcendental Meditation on Left Ventricular FunctionARNOLD GASH, M.D., JOEL S. KARLINER, M.D., F.A.C.P.ARNOLD GASH, M.D.Search for more papers by this author, JOEL S. KARLINER, M.D., F.A.C.P.Search for more papers by this authorAuthor, Article, and Disclosure Informationhttps://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-88-2-215 SectionsAboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ExcerptThere are few studies of the direct physiologic effects of transcendental meditation (TM). Because of the complex interactions between psychophysiologic processes and cardiovascular responses, we have studied the immediate cardiovascular effects of TM in healthy volunteers who are regular practitioners of this technique.The study population comprised 26 volunteers, aged 22 to 37. Fifteen were women. None had evidence of organic heart disease by history, physical examination, or resting electrocardiogram or echocardiogram. All subjects had been regular practitioners of TM for at least 1 year. The study was done in an echocardiography laboratory, which afforded quiet and private surroundings. Satisfactory...

Meditation and the prevention of alcohol abuse

The authors surveyed the frequency of alcohol use in individuals identified as practitioners of Transcendental Meditation (N equals 126) and a matched control group (N equals 90). No control subjects reported discontinuation of beer and wine use; 40 percent of subjects who had meditated for more than 2 years reported discontinuation within the first 6 months. After 25-39 months of meditation, this figure increased to 60 percent. In addition, 54 percent of this group, versus 1 percent of the control group, had stopped drinking hard liquor. The authors suggest that meditation could be an effective preventive tool in the area of alcohol abuse.

EEG analysis of spontaneous and induced states of consciousness

Information transfer and integration in the brain that leads to high-level cognitive processes requires neuronal coordination. High phase synchronization (zero-lag) in fast frequencies is implicated in integrating sensory events. Alpha EEG activity, long regarded as a passive “idling” frequency, is now being implicated in this integrative function. As an example, in brain pathology decreased alpha phase synchrony is correlated with a decline in cognitive function. Transcendental Meditation (TM) provides an interesting starting point to study neuronal coordination because the “transcending” experience is a baseline state of consciousness, a condition of restful alertness without cognitive activity. Previous work on TM, reported to increase numerous indices of mind–body health, has been shown to increase neural coherence in the alpha band. In this study 15 subjects practicing the TM technique were investigated for changes in alpha phase synchrony. A time-domain method was used to measure millisecond phase shifts in 19 electrodes in long-term practitioners of TM in two conditions: eyes-closed resting and meditation. Significant reductions in millisecond phase lag were found during the meditation condition as compared to the eyes-closed resting condition in 30 of 49 long-range electrode pairings between frontal and occipito-parietal areas. Under the same conditions, twelve control subjects without meditation experience showed no change in alpha phase synchrony over the same time period. It is proposed that enhanced phase synchrony in the alpha frequency during meditation may improve functional integration and may have implications for performance and mind–body health. A short proposal for a phase synchrony model of consciousness is included.