Counseling Practice Research Articles

Defining Systemic Change in School Counseling: A Delphi Study

ABSTRACT Systemic change is regarded as a key component of professional school counseling practice for increasing positive, equitable outcomes for PreK-12 students. Although related constructs like leadership and advocacy have been thoughtfully explored, systemic change requires consultation and collaboration with educational and community partners. To date, there has been a lack of clarity around how systemic change looks in practice for school counselors. The purpose of this study was to explore the foundational components of systemic change in school counseling. Using Delphi methodology, an expert panel of 22 participants consisting of professional school counselors, counselor educators, and school counseling supervisors developed a consensus list of 130 items describing the core beliefs, knowledge, dispositions, and skills necessary for school counselors to conduct systemic change. The findings suggest future implications for school counseling research, preparation, and consultation.

Applying theories, models, and frameworks to help genetic counselors and students achieve clinical and professional goals.

Some genetic counselors (GCs) may find theories, models, and frameworks (TMFs) useful in clinical skills selection and when reflecting on or evaluating genetic counseling practice. This paper aims to demonstrate how TMFs can be used to postulate how different skills may impact patients'/clients' decisions, behaviors, and outcomes and consider how multiple TMFs can inform the use of various skills or strategies to achieve different goals. Additionally, we provide examples of TMFs that may help GCs in nonclinical aspects of their work, such as implementing and evaluating new interventions or service delivery models. To guide the selection of appropriate TMFs, we provide a set of questions to consider and include examples of skills and approaches that align with different TMFs. While TMFs provide a structured approach and valuable guidance that may help advance genetic counseling practice, they have certain limitations. Additional research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of using TMFs to guide clinical practice and improve patient/client outcomes.

A survey to analyze the need of genetic counseling among doctors in Lahore, Pakistan.

Pakistan with a population of approximately 200 million people faces a significant burden of genetic disorders. Higher preference for consanguinity (73%) is one of the significant reasons. Despite being a hub for rare genetic disorders, the country lacks professionally trained genetic counselors due to the absence of postgraduate degree programs or diplomas in genetic counseling. This shortage of specialized personnel results in inadequate and limited genetic counseling practices nationwide. This study aimed to highlight the urgent need for genetic counseling in Pakistan, focusing on the gaps within both society and the healthcare infrastructure. A survey-based study involving n = 101 participants was conducted to assess the demand for genetic counseling among medical professionals in Lahore, Pakistan. The study targeted five categories of medical specialists-gynecologists, oncologists, psychiatrists, pediatricians, and ultrasonologists-working in both private and public healthcare settings in Lahore. The survey included a questionnaire covering demographic information, 10 general questions, and a case study with follow-up questions. The survey was conducted both online and through in-person visits. Our findings reveal a significant lack of awareness among healthcare providers, with 91.1% of respondents unaware of any genetic counseling services or genetic counselors in Lahore. The research underscores the crucial role of genetic counselors, with the vast majority (99%) of specialists expressing an urgent need for their presence in Pakistan's healthcare system. This study highlights that only qualified genetic counselors can effectively address genetic issues. Furthermore, it advocates for the introduction of specialized professional training programs to address this pressing need in the country.

Psychological flexibility and celiac disease in adolescents: Understanding adherence and well-being for enhanced care. A rapid narrative review

Abstract Background Psychological flexibility (PF) has been approached as a mediator between health conditions and outcomes by promoting positive responses and healthier behavior repertoires. Purpose This rapid narrative review examines studies exploring the role of PF in influencing celiac disease outcomes among adolescents, with a particular focus on adherence to dietary management practices. Method Online databases were searched for studies exploring possible connections between PF, celiac manifestation, and management presented by adolescents. Selected articles have entered the analysis to highlight whether PF mediates or affects celiac-related outcomes in adolescents. Conclusions Adolescents demonstrate a greater capacity to organize their daily routines effectively while adhering to gluten-free diets. However, the emphasis on PF can significantly impact their social interactions. Although there is much research to be conducted on this possible connection, there are still primary assumptions that support the idea that PF can also be a factor in helping adolescents with celiac disease navigate the challenges of their illness and maintain a quality of life. Healthcare professionals can find value in incorporating elements from supporting therapies, health literacy programs, and health promotion strategies. Furthermore, insights from the review suggest the importance of standardizing interventions and measurements including counseling practices at the primary care level.

Pregnancy outcomes following second-trimester abortions: A comparison between medical and surgical management. A historic cohort study.

To compare perinatal outcomes in subsequent pregnancies following second-trimester abortions, stratified by the method of abortion. A historic cohort study was conducted in a single tertiary hospital, including women who had second-trimester abortions between 12+0 and 24+0 weeks and subsequent documented pregnancies within 3-60 months. Data were collected from hospitalization and perinatal databases. Composite outcome variables were constructed, and multivariable logistic regression was used to analyze associations, adjusting for confounders. Among 771 women meeting the inclusion criteria, 83% had surgical abortions and 17% had medical abortions. Medical abortion was associated with a higher incidence of placenta-associated pregnancy complications compared with surgical abortion. No significant differences were found in other perinatal outcomes. The study highlights the potential influence of the abortion method on subsequent pregnancy outcomes, particularly regarding placenta-associated complications. This underscores the importance of considering the method of second-trimester abortion in counseling women regarding potential risks to subsequent pregnancies. Adverse outcomes in subsequent pregnancies following second-trimester abortion were associated with the medical method of abortion, warranting further research and careful counseling in clinical practice.

The Adoptee Consciousness Model: Integration with Family Counseling Theory and Practice

Transracial adult adoptee storylines are increasingly represented across media platforms, yet counseling practice guidelines for the population remain limited. The authors provide updated counseling strategies by applying the Adoptee Consciousness Model (ACM). Via a fictitious case study of one adult transracial adoptee, the authors integrate the ACM with three family systems theories. Recommendations for individual, couple, and family counselors and therapists are provided.

Challenge or Threat? Proposing and Testing a Career Shock Coping Model

Career shocks can significantly impact individuals’ career development. We propose that how a career shock affects career development depends on how people appraise it. Specifically, our Career Shock Coping (CSC) model proposes that, dependent on personal characteristics, individuals differ in the extent to which they appraise career shocks as challenging and/or threatening. Challenge and threat appraisals inspire approach- and avoidance-oriented career behaviors, respectively, which differentially relate to career-related outcomes. A two-wave study was conducted among medical students ( N = 279) in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic as a career shock. Supporting our CSC model, core self-evaluation (CSE) related negatively to threat appraisal and threat appraisal related positively to avoidance-oriented career behavior. Avoidance-oriented career behavior related positively to career decision-making stress. The relations between CSE, challenge appraisal, approach-oriented career behavior, and career decision-making stress were not significant. The findings have implications for career shocks research and career counseling practice.

Thematic review on counseling crisis and intervention in school

Crisis counseling and intervention in schools play a crucial role in addressing students' psychological needs during crisis, yet there is limited comprehensive literature reviewing their application and effectiveness.This thematic review synthesizes research on crisis counseling and intervention in schools, descriptions, and evaluations. A systematic search was conducted using the Scopus and Web of Science databases to identify relevant studies published between 2019 and 2023. A total of 25 studies were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria and were analyzed to extract key themes related to crisis counseling and intervention in schools. Three primary themes emerged from the analysis: (1) the roles of school counselors, (2) crisis preparedness, and (3) crisis intervention strategies. These themes were explored in relation to various methodologies used in the studies, highlighting multiple approaches counselors use to integrate crisis counseling knowledge for prevention and intervention within school settings. The review underscores the importance of school counselors' roles in crisis preparedness and intervention. However, further empirical research is needed to support and expand upon current recommendations, ensuring more effective crisis counseling practices in schools.

Incorporating multiracial and multiethnic experiences into genetic counseling practice and research: A necessary opportunity.

The conflation of race and genetic ancestry can have harmful consequences. Biological conceptualizations of race have long been used to justify inequities and distract from social structures that afford opportunities to some that are unjustly denied to others. Despite recent efforts within the scientific community to distinguish between the sociopolitical constructs of race and ethnicity and the biological constructs of genetic ancestry and genetic similarity, their conflation continues to influence genomic research and its translation into clinical care. One overlooked aspect of this problematic conflation is the extent to which discrete monoracial and monoethnic categorization systems persist and perpetuate unequal benefit-sharing in the clinical translation of genomic technologies. In genetic service delivery, reliance on discrete racial and ethnic categories undermines the clinical translation of genomic technologies for large segments of the global population. For multiracial and multiethnic individuals, who have complex identities that defy discrete categorization systems, the potential benefits of genomic discoveries are especially elusive. Scholars have recently begun to call for the inclusion of multiracial, multiethnic, and admixed individuals in race, ethnicity, and ancestry frameworks in genetics and genomics. However, little work has been done to explore and address the unique challenges and opportunities posed by multiracial/multiethnic individuals in genetic counseling specifically. We discuss how conceptualizing diversity along discrete racial and ethnic lines perpetuates inequitable patient care and limits efforts to increase inclusion and belonging within genetic counseling. Moreover, we argue that ongoing efforts to mitigate racial inequity must actively challenge the paradigm of monoracial and monoethnic categories to accomplish their goal.

Cancer genetic counseling via telegenetics and telephone: A qualitative study exploring the experience of patients and genetic counselors in an Australian cancer genetics context.

The demand for direct-to-patient (DTP) telegenetics (genetics services delivered via videoconferencing) in genetic counseling practice has rapidly increased, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent telegenetics literature is mostly quantitative and not in the Australian context. A qualitative interview study was conducted to address this gap. This research investigated the experiences of patients and genetic counselors (GCs), enrolled in a randomized controlled trial, using telegenetics and telephone for cancer genetic counseling appointments. Twenty-eight semi-structured interviews with patients (n = 22) and GCs (n = 6) were conducted following patient randomization to either a telephone or telegenetics genetic counseling appointment. The interviews explored participant's experiences of telegenetics and compared DTP telegenetics with telephone and in-person delivery. Codebook thematic analysis was used to develop topic summaries from the data. Patient and GC participants noted positive experiences of telegenetics; with key benefits reported as reduced travel time, time and cost saving, ease, convenience, efficiency, and comfortability. Technical issues and privacy concerns were highlighted as potential disadvantages of telegenetics. All but one patient felt sufficiently emotionally supported while using telegenetics. Telegenetics has both benefits and limitations; however, generally, this cohort found telegenetics to be a suitable and acceptable mode of delivery for genetic counseling with many advantages over in-person or telephone appointments. Further studies should be conducted to provide evidence for the long-term implementation of telegenetics, regardless of any future COVID-19 pandemic lockdown restrictions.

Anesthesia Providers' Knowledge of Medication Interference with Hormonal Contraception: A Multisite Survey.

Sugammadex, aprepitant, and fosaprepitant are increasingly used perioperatively. These medications may interfere with the effectiveness of hormonal contraception. This study assessed anesthesia providers' use of sugammadex and aprepitant, their knowledge of interactions with hormonal birth control, and patient counseling practices to identify possible knowledge gaps or opportunities for practice improvement. In January 2023, an electronic survey was distributed to all anesthesia providers at Mayo Clinic sites (Mayo Clinic Rochester, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Mayo Clinic Florida, and Mayo Clinic Health System hospitals). The survey included 32 questions assessing providers' use of sugammadex and aprepitant, their knowledge of the medications' interactions with hormonal contraceptives (HC), their perceptions regarding education of these interactions during training, and their perioperative patient counseling practices. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. A total of 337 of 1092 (31%) providers completed the survey. While almost all respondents (324; 96%) knew that sugammadex may interfere with oral contraceptive effectiveness, only 158 (47%) knew about aprepitant's potential contraceptive interference. Only 176 providers (52%) knew the recommended duration for alternative contraceptive methods after use after sugammadex, and 119 providers (35%) knew the recommended duration after aprepitant exposure. Most respondents considered the interference of these perioperative drugs with HCs to be clinically relevant (sugammadex, 217, 64%; aprepitant, 191, 58%). Despite the common belief that the decision between these medications and alternatives should be shared between provider and patient, most providers reported rarely engaging in such shared decision-making (SDM) in practice. Most providers recognized the need for preoperative discussions on sugammadex (280, 83%) and aprepitant (257, 76%), yet 184 providers (73%) never or rarely discussed contraception use before surgery for aprepitant, and 135 (36%) never or rarely did so for sugammadex. Lastly, many providers believed that the interference between sugammadex, aprepitant, and HC was poorly taught during training. The results of this study highlight the need for increased education and awareness among anesthesia providers regarding drug interactions with HCs during the perioperative period. To facilitate SDM, it is imperative that providers discuss alternative medications and the potential need for additional contraception methods after drug administration and communicate the risks with patients preoperatively to enable informed and SDM. The patient's preferences should be accounted for, especially if they are unwilling or unable to use an alternative contraceptive for 7 to 30 days, thereby avoiding the complexities and burdens of altering birth control methods.

Nilai Etika Konselor dalam Membangun Interaksi Efektif antara Konselor dan Konseli

The purpose of this research is to investigate ethical values ​​that are important in building effective interactions between counselors and counselees in a counseling context. The research method used is literature study, by collecting data from various relevant literature. The data collection process involves reading, studying, examining and carefully examining hadith texts and related literature. Data analysis was carried out by organizing data into groups based on emerging themes, referring to the Lexy approach and content analysis. The research results show that ethics in counseling is a moral foundation that guides the behavior and interactions of counselors with their clients. The principles of counseling ethics, such as respecting human dignity and human rights, maintaining the confidentiality of client information, and promoting social justice, are essential to the practice of counseling. Counselors are expected to understand, internalize, and implement these ethical values ​​in order to help clients effectively and ensure that counseling takes place in a safe and trustworthy atmosphere. In addition, ethical values ​​that are important for a counselor in building a meaningful and effective relationship with clients include autonomy, not violating a code of ethics, fairness, and loyalty. Personal values ​​such as having faith and devotion to God Almighty, respecting human values ​​and individuality, and showing integrity and stability of personality also help strengthen the counselor-counselee relationship. By understanding, internalizing, and implementing these ethical and personal values, a counselor can build meaningful and effective relationships with his counselees, and carry out his duties and functions well at school. It is hoped that this research will provide an in-depth understanding of the ethical values ​​that are important in counseling practice. Keywords: Counselor Ethical Values, Interaction The purpose of this research is to investigate ethical values ​​that are important in building effective interactions between counselors and counselees in a counseling context. The research method used is literature study, by collecting data from various relevant literature. The data collection process involves reading, studying, examining and carefully examining hadith texts and related literature. Data analysis was carried out by organizing data into groups based on emerging themes, referring to the Lexy approach and content analysis. The research results show that ethics in counseling is a moral foundation that guides the behavior and interactions of counselors with their clients. The principles of counseling ethics, such as respecting human dignity and human rights, maintaining the confidentiality of client information, and promoting social justice, are essential to the practice of counseling. Counselors are expected to understand, internalize, and implement these ethical values ​​in order to help clients effectively and ensure that counseling takes place in a safe and trustworthy atmosphere. In addition, ethical values ​​that are important for a counselor in building a meaningful and effective relationship with clients include autonomy, not violating a code of ethics, fairness, and loyalty. Personal values ​​such as having faith and devotion to God Almighty, respecting human values ​​and individuality, and showing integrity and stability of personality also help strengthen the counselor-counselee relationship. By understanding, internalizing, and implementing these ethical and personal values, a counselor can build meaningful and effective relationships with his counselees, and carry out his duties and functions well at school. It is hoped that this research will provide an in-depth understanding of the ethical values ​​that are important in counseling practice.

Building Student Competencies through Socialization of Digital Transformation and HR Development in the Age of Technology

This community service aims to build student competencies in facing the challenges of digital transformation and human resource development (HR) in the technological era. This activity is carried out through socialization and training that aims to increase students' understanding of the importance of digital literacy, technology skills, and the development of soft skills needed in the modern world of work. The methods used include counseling, interactive discussions, and hands-on practice on various aspects of digital transformation, such as the use of digital platforms, data management, and character and competency development relevant to current industry needs. The results of this activity show that the socialization and training provided can increase students' knowledge and awareness of digital transformation and the importance of developing adaptive and innovative human resources. Thus, this activity is expected to help students prepare to compete in the technological era and become a competent workforce ready to face change.

Investigating the cognitive and affective dynamics of social media addiction: Insights from peer contexts.

Informed by the interaction of person-affect-cognition-execution (I-PACE) theory, the present studies examined the association between peer rejection, peer popularity, and social media addiction (SMA) at both between-person and within-person levels. Two distinct processes, the fear-driven/compensation-seeking process and the reward-driven process were explored. In Study 1, using a cross-sectional sample of high school students (N = 318), both processes were supported via different cognitive mediators. Support for the fear-driven/compensation-seeking process was demonstrated by finding that avoidance expectancy was a significant cognitive mediator between peer-nominated rejection and SMA. In turn, the reward-driven process was supported by the significant mediation of reward expectancy between peer-nominated popularity and SMA. In Study 2, using ecological momentary assessment with college students (N = 54), we found the fear-driven/compensation-seeking process partially supported through both between-person and within-person mediations. Specifically, negative affect and social media craving were two affective mediators that linked peer rejection and addictive social media use behaviors. On the other hand, the reward-driven process was predominantly supported by within-person mediations, in which positive affect and social media craving were found to be mediators of the relationship between peer popularity and addictive social media use behaviors. The results underscore that adolescents experiencing rejection tend to use social media to avoid negative feelings and compensate for interpersonal deficits, while adolescents experiencing popularity tend to use social media to maintain positive feelings and gain social rewards. Implications for the assessment, case formulation, and treatment of SMA in counseling practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Career Adaptability Across Southeast Asia: A Systematic Review

Southeast Asia has recently seen a number of developments and transformations that requires one to adjust to as the region’s skill requirements are evolving. For some these new changes brings new opportunities, however, for some greater levels of career adaptability is need to manage these new developments and transformations. The necessity of systematically reviewing articles on career adaptability in Southeast Asian nations is made apparent by this particular instance. A systematic review of career adaptability in Southeast Asia was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. About 22 eligible studies were identified. The findings indicated that the most prevalent groups in career adaptability studies were students, followed by working adults. Antecedents such as role modeling and cultural intelligence were identified. Four categories of predictors were identified such as personal, educational, career behavior, and environmental factor. Two categories were identified for the outcomes of career adaptability, namely, personal and career outcomes. Findings revealed that career adaptability offers several beneficial outcomes such as improved employability skills and life satisfaction. Discussion includes conditions faced in Southeast Asian countries and cultural differences. The dearth of studies within multicultural settings calls for further research in exploring career adaptability, as this broaden cultural understanding and awareness of educational and career behaviors pertaining to one’s career adaptability. This study offers important practical implications and recommendations for career counseling practices and policymakers in Southeast Asia that would potentially benefit students and working adults.

Impact of a Nutrition and Diabetes Continuing Education Program on Primary Care Provider's Knowledge, Attitude, and Clinical Practice.

Diet/nutrition is the first-line non-pharmacological therapy in the treatment of diabetes. Diet/nutrition counseling is infrequently provided by primary care providers (PCPs), who have limited nutrition education in both medical and advanced practice provider curricula. This quality improvement project aimed to improve knowledge and attitude, and frequency of diet/nutrition counseling by PCPs among patients with uncontrolled diabetes (glycosylated hemoglobin A1c ≥8%), by providing an online continuing medical education (CME) program on diabetes diet/nutrition. At a community health center in New England, PCPs attended a live 50-minute online CME program that was developed internally, which taught PCPs current diet/nutrition guidelines and recommendations related to diabetes. Knowledge was assessed prior to and two weeks following the program, utilizing a 10-question tool, the Nutrition Management of Diabetes Assessment (NMDA). Similarly, attitude was evaluated using two subscales of the Nutrition in Patient Care Survey (NIPS): Nutrition in routine care and Physician efficacy. Chart audits of patients with uncontrolled diabetes were evaluated to assess PCPs documentation of diet/nutrition counseling four weeks prior to and six weeks following the CME program. In September 2023, PCPs (n = 29) completed the CME program. There was an improvement in knowledge in the NMDA amongst PCPs (36% difference, p < 0.001). Attitude scores from two subscales of the NIPS were evaluated and both showed improvement, however only physician efficacy was significant (15% difference, p < 0.01). There was a positive difference in the trend of diet/nutrition counseling after the education program (p < 0.05). An online CME program improved diabetes diet/nutrition knowledge and attitude of PCPs and improved counseling practices for patients living with uncontrolled diabetes. The education program provided PCPs current standards of care guidelines/recommendations, which they can utilize when counseling patients with diabetes. PCPs would benefit from dedicated continuing education programs regarding diet/nutrition therapy for chronic illnesses.

Exploring Buddhist Literature and Philosophical Counseling Techniques: A Pathway to Social and Cultural Resilience in Strengthening Asia

Buddhism, one of the most profound philosophical systems in Asia, has historically influenced the social, cultural, and intellectual fabric of many Asian societies. This study explores the literature of Buddhism and the techniques of Buddhist philosophical counseling, investigating their contemporary relevance and impact on strengthening the socio-cultural cohesion across Asia. The motivations behind this study stem from the need to understand how ancient wisdom can address modern-day challenges such as mental health crises, social fragmentation, and ethical dilemmas. By examining canonical Buddhist texts and contemporary interpretations, this research seeks to demonstrate how Buddhist teachings—particularly those related to mindfulness, compassion, and interdependence—can be applied through counseling practices to enhance individual well-being and foster collective harmony. The methodology involves a comprehensive review of Buddhist literature, along with qualitative analysis of case studies where Buddhist philosophical counseling has been effectively integrated into modern counseling practices in Asian contexts. The major conclusions indicate that Buddhist techniques offer a unique approach to counseling, emphasizing inner transformation and ethical living, which align with the core values of many Asian societies. This study holds significant implications, as it highlights how Buddhist counseling not only addresses individual psychological needs but also promotes social solidarity, cultural continuity, and regional unity in Asia, especially in times of globalization and rapid modernization. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how ancient Buddhist philosophies can be effectively harnessed to address the contemporary issues facing Asia today, reinforcing both personal growth and collective resilience.

Addressing social determinants of mental health through cognitive behavioral therapy

AbstractCognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely studied and implemented means of counseling. Researchers have emphasized the need for counselors to consider wider contextual factors that affect clients in their use of CBT, including the social determinants of mental health (SDMH). We conducted a concurrent nested mixed methods study to better understand the outcomes of a 3‐month CBT‐based SDMH training program for N = 8 professional counselors. We implemented a quasi‐experimental quantitative design and a phenomenological qualitative design. Results of Wilcoxon signed‐rank tests indicate statistically significant increases in participants’ SDMH and multicultural competence following completion of the training program. Thematic analysis findings suggest practical steps participants intend to take to address SDMH in their CBT practice with clients, including use of universal assessment tools and engagement in further training. Implications for counseling practice conclude.

Introducing an Approach for Interdisciplinary Supervision in Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling

Effective clinical supervision is a key element of professional rehabilitation counseling. While there is much overlap, the provision of clinical supervision to those with master’s degrees in rehabilitation counseling is different from supervising individuals who do not have a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling. The passage of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) permits individuals to work in the position of rehabilitation counselor without a master’s degree, leaving supervisors to provide clinical supervision to those with and without master’s degrees in rehabilitation counseling. The purpose of this conceptual paper is to introduce an application of explicit instruction to the supervision of non-master’s-level supervisees. The principles of explicit instruction will be applied to the supervision process within the scope of practice for rehabilitation counselors. Implications for practice and research will be provided.

Meaning-making in psychotherapy after traumatic loss: therapists’ perspectives

ABSTRACT Sudden, unexpected loss can be particularly devastating for the bereaved as they struggle to make sense of their loss. We interviewed 11 therapists who specialized in loss/trauma about how each of them helped one client make meaning after a traumatic loss. Data, analyzed using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR), revealed that the traumatic loss had negatively impacted clients’ relationships, mental health, and beliefs/religion/spirituality; therapists utilized a range of interventions to facilitate meaning-making, including supporting clients through the grief process, as well as helping them experience/regulate emotion and change their narratives around the loss; clients made meaning in diverse ways that could be broadly categorized under meaning-as-comprehensibility and meaning-as-significance; and clients experienced positive adjustment (in mental health, relationships, etc.) through the meaning-making work. Implications for counseling psychology research and practice are discussed.