Powerful Natural Forces Research Articles

Tectonic activation and the risk of Ilisu Dam collapse to Iraq through modelling and simulation using HEC-RAS

Floods caused by dam failures can cause huge losses of life and property, especially in estuarine areas and valleys. In spite of all the capabilities and great improvements reached by man in the construction of dams and their structures, they will remain helpless before the powerful forces of nature, especially those related to tectonic activation, and the occurrence of earthquakes of different intensities.The region extending from the Ilisu Dam in Turkey to the Mosul Dam in Iraq was chosen as an area for this study, and the HEC-RAS application was used to simulate the collapse of the Ilisu Dam due to a major earthquake, to know the magnitude of the risks and losses that could result from this. The Ilisu Dam was built very close to a highly tectonically active fault system, particularly the East Anatolian Fault (EAF), which is one of the largest tectonically active faults in the world with a length of 500 km. This region has witnessed past and present earthquakes of high magnitude (M > 7), especially in the EAF, so the construction of the Ilisu Dam near the EAF fault system is of great concern, as it was built in a basin with very complex seismic activity and geology.Using the HEC-RAS simulation application, the study found that the flood resulting from the collapse of the Ilisu Dam would reach the edges of the Mosul Dam Lake in just 13 h. With a flow of more than 100,000 m3/s, more than 10 billion m3 of water will flow into the Mosul Dam Lake within four days of the disaster. This will lead to the collapse of the Mosul Dam and direct the flood wave of the collapse of these dams towards Baghdad through Mosul, Tikrit, and Samarra. This could pose risks to all Iraqi cities located within the Iraqi sedimentary plain (Mesopotamia), from south of the Mosul Dam up to Basra, in a scenario similar to Noah’s Flood.

Developing Farmers’ Community Resilience in the Volcanic Area of Mount Merapi, Indonesia

Mount Merapi is one of the active stratovolcanoes in Indonesia, and its slopes are not only home to the powerful forces of nature but also to thriving communities of farmers. Many farmers' communities are found around the slopes of this mountain, relying on the fertile volcanic soil for their agricultural activities. This research was undertaken near Mount Merapi, approximately 4 km from the volcano peak, to investigate the resilience of farmers' communities in the face of Mount Merapi's potential disasters. It affects the farmer’s behavior, with the majority of residents being farmers. The primary objective of this study was to understand why and how these farmers’ communities demonstrate resilience in the wake of Mount Merapi's potential disasters. The qualitative approach was used in this research and the key informants were determined by using the purposive sampling technique. Data obtained were analyzed using an interactive data analysis model. The study identified three primary themes that significantly influenced the resilience of farmers' communities. The first theme encompasses social aspects, highlighting the importance of social capital, including strong social relations, trust, and community networks. The second theme revolves around economic factors, specifically business capital and the various forms of income within the farmers' communities. Lastly, the third theme focuses on environmental considerations, emphasizing the role of natural capital, particularly effective land use, as the most impactful in maximizing community resilience. Additionally, it was also found that the strong engagement among farmers within their communities made their resilience ability toward disaster highly formidable

Landscape in Middle English Romance: The Medieval Imagination and the Natural World

Landscape in Middle English Romance: The Medieval Imagination and the Natural World

MYTHOLOGY OF ORPHEUS IN CLASSICAL CULTURAL TRADITION

The article examines the peculiarities in the formation of the Orpheus mythologeme in the ancient cultural tradition. An analysis of the works of ancient authors, including Pindar, Aeschylus, Euripides, Apollonius of Rhodes, Virgil and Ovid allows to single out the specifics of creating the image of Orpheus. The latter is seen by the above-mentioned authors not only as a poet and musician who had lost his beloved Eurydice, but also as the founder of cult rites known as Orphic mysteries. “Orphism” as a system of religious and philosophical views became most widespread in the era of Peisistratus in the 6th century BC in Attica. Dionysus, revered by the Orphic, was important for farmers as a deity of eternal rebirth and powerful natural forces. In the ancient cultural tradition, the image of Orpheus develops under a double sign: both Apollo and Dionysus. The ideas of Orphic philosophy can be found in the religious and philosophical teachings of the Pythagorean school and in the writings of Plato. The original transformation of the Orphic-Pythagorean ideas and the mythologeme of Orpheus occurs in Virgil’s Georgics and Ovid’s Metamorphoses, which are also the subject of this article. The comparative historical analysis of artworks and philosophical treatises of antiquity carried out in the course of this study indicates that the mythologeme of Orpheus in the ancient cultural tradition is an example of the embodiment of the syncretic unity of art and religion in the archaic consciousness.

Culturally sensitive disaster nursing by Public health nurses in Japan

To clarify culturally sensitive disaster nursing by public health nurses (PHNs) in Japan, an island nation located on the Pacific Rim, with regard to PHNs' intentions and comforting supports for affected people. Qualitative descriptive study. Participants were 17 local PHNs and 13 affected people in nine disaster-affected municipalities throughout Japan. Semi-structured interviews were conducted between October 2018 and July 2019. Two types of categories were qualitatively created: categories for PHNs' culturally sensitive disaster nursing actions, including their intentions; and categories for comforting supports that PHNs provided for affected people through the four phases of disaster. The relationship between these two types of categories was determined. Cultural factors were extracted from the culturally sensitive disaster nursing actions of PHNs and categorized. Regarding intentions, in the acute phase, PHNs utilized culture. In the sub-acute phase, they utilized, acted based on, followed, thought of, and balanced cultural knowledge. In the mid-term-phase, they utilized, thought of, followed, and balanced with local culture. In the long-term phase, they merged, thought of, balanced, utilized, and followed local cultural practices. The actions associated with these intentions corresponded to comforting supports for affected people. Cultural factors, such as transportation style, were obtained in each phase. To enhance the resilience of a community affected by disaster, PHNs should focus on maximizing, preserving, and accommodating culture to maintain familiar life patterns when people's circumstances are totally disrupted by powerful forces of nature.

An Analytical Study of the Folk Musical Instruments of Meghalaya

"Meghalaya is a richly inhabited Indian state. Drums, flutes of bamboo and hand-held small cymbals are a common ensemble. The advent of Christianity in the middle of the 20th century marked the start of a decline in tribal popular music. Over time, Meghalaya’s music scene has evolved, attracting many talented artists and bands from both traditional and not-so traditional genres. Any of the most recent Meghalaya musicians and bands is: The Plague Throat, Kerios Wahlang, Cryptographik Street Poets, etc., Soulmate, Lou Majaw, and Snow White. Meghalaya’s music is characterised by traditional instruments and folk songs. The Musical Instruments of Meghalaya are made from local materials. Meghalayan people honour powerful natural forces and aim to pacify animistic spirits and local gods. The instruments are made of bamboo, flesh, wood, and animal horn. Any one of these musical instruments is considered to have the ability to offer material benefits. The Meghalaya musical instrument is an essential part of traditional folk music in the region. In this article, we offer an overview of the folk musical instruments of Meghalaya. Keywords: Idiophone, Aerophone, Chordophone, Membranophone, Trumpet. "

Figures of Postwar Sliding: Utopia and Violence in the Extreme Sport Performances of James Bond

This article investigates the utopian visions of extreme sports as a postwar phenomenon by contrasting it to the violence of the extreme sport practitioner par excellence in postwar/cold war cinema: James Bond. Continental philosophy and cultural studies furnish extreme sport as a manifold of wholesome, meaningful, sustainable, life-enhancing, and environmentally intimate practices, less orientated toward human rivalry than its traditional namesake. Certain attention is thus paid to the movement of sliding in extreme sports that thrive on powerful natural forces such as air, wind, snowy slopes, and big waves, creating an ambivalent field between mastery and letting oneself go. Sliding, or glissade, is treated as a “figure of thought” that Bond is mustered to embody and enact with his extreme athletic repertoire. The analysis of James Bond’s extreme sport sliding is contrasted to the musings of glissade philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Gilles Deleuze, and Michel Serres. It is concluded that if there is utopianism in James Bond’s extreme sport performances, it is in the sliding itself, while the attaining of that state is paved with violence towards everything material. The article reinforces the concept of the extreme in relation to sport as a processual tool, rather than a category describing a fixed set of characteristics adhering to a certain practice.

Blurring the shoreline: De- and re-infrastructuring and the changing colors of European flood policy

This paper provides a genealogy of the emergence of a common EU flood policy, including the scope and direction of this policy. Noticing how EU policy proposes green infrastructure (associated with using nature as a buffer zone in managing floods) as an alternative to grey infrastructure (implying fixed installations of concrete and cement), this paper adopts the theoretical lens of the so-called infrastructural turn, which advocates a relational investigation of infrastructure. By engaging this approach, the paper shows how flood infrastructure can contain very different compositions of (unruly) water and (settled) land. A narrative of a historically strong focus on guarding society from the powerful forces of nature through a fixed line of defense is increasingly giving way to more muddy states—quite literally—where society is expected to learn to live with flooding and show ecological consideration. To capture the EU’s, and especially the European Commission’s efforts to establish a pan-European flood infrastructure that accommodates this turn, the concepts of de- and re-infrastructuring are developed. These concepts act as heuristic devices to capture how policy performs some combinations between water and land as constituting an attractive and functional flood infrastructure, but constitutes other infrastructural relations of the aquatic and the terrestrial as undesirable and, hence, as malfunctioning. This performative act of distinguishing between what constitutes “good and proper” versus “bad and undesirable” infrastructure is referred to as a politics of infrastructure.

Three Lessons from Japan on Architectural Resilience

This article defines architectural resilience as architecture’s capacity to support a community in regaining equilibrium after a powerful force has disrupted its organization. It considers architecture’s physical, aesthetic, and symbolic aspects as equally important for its agency in a community, and argues that the combination of these aspects differentiates architectural resilience from structural resilience. To demonstrate this, the article looks at Japan, where powerful natural forces and human-inflicted devastation have frequently given the population cause to rethink the idea of resilience in their habitat and settlement patterns. This article focuses on three periods in Japan’s history when architectural resilience was a key factor in the (re)development of the population’s habitat. In the pre-industrial Edo period, resilience was attained by balancing scales of design: ductility of some buildings compensated for rigidity in others. The second period is that of the 1960s, when the Metabolist architects sought to accommodate change in buildings and cities by distinguishing rigid elements from malleable ones. But a penchant for technological specificity precluded the resilient balance. Finally, the article examines the reconstruction efforts following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, when government plans to toughen the territory through infrastructure and to relocate the population overlooked the living preferences of specific communities and their connection to the ocean. In this instance, architects played a key role as mediators between people and their environment. These three cases demonstrate how a combination of rigidity and flexibility can ensure architecture’s contribution to the regeneration of communities.

Sublimation: Building or dwelling? Loewald, Freud, and architecture.

Hans Loewald’s understanding of sublimation differs radically from Freud’s use of this term. Whereas Freud saw sublimation as a change of aim, elevating drive-based desire to a higher level of art, for Loewald, sublimation is a process of linking two experiences of reality. I suggest that Loewald’s sublimation combines ideas from his two teachers—Martin Heidegger and Sigmund Freud. Using Heidegger’s terms building and dwelling, I argue that architecture is always a sublimatory product, combining a rational, functional reality of building with a phenomenological experience of inhabiting space and dwelling. I described how this concept of sublimation is useful to understanding architecture, a field that is charged to elaborate the links and boundaries between oneself and others. Buildings are interfaces between our fragile body and the powerful forces of nature, between individual solitude and the social, pulsating metropolis. It is a meditation and elaboration of self-other boundaries. I end by demonstrating how Loewald’s notion of sublimation might be utilized to understand three architectural projects we designed. These projects are based on an underlying, unifying field that is then differentiated to create singular functional and social moments within the building.

Technology and the forces of nature: A lesson of humility calling for ecocentrism

The incident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, resulting from the powerful earthquake and tsunami that struck the northeastern coast of Japan in March 2011, reminds humankind of the powerful natural forces that shape our world. This article calls for a new ecocentric approach to human interaction with the environment, with particular reference to the environmental consequences of radiation.

"A Starving Belly Doesn’t Listen to Explanations": Agricultural Evangelism in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1900 to 1962

Abstract Both missionaries and government policymakers in colonial Zimbabwe consciously identified agriculture as an important avenue in establishing broader paradigms of explanation. Missionary promotion of new farming practices inevitably challenged the existing spiritual landscape by insisting that rationalized individual labor could overcome powerful natural forces. This article examines various facets of the American-based Methodist Episcopal Church’s agricultural evangelism in a period of growing state intervention. Despite careful missionary attempts to manage the outcomes, individuals with their own agendas absorbed and transformed these policies. Local farmers utilized imported agricultural knowledge for their own purposes and did not conform to the experiences or expectations of American-trained agricultural missionaries. Within these mission communities, converts successfully blended new forms of worship with existing social priorities and also adapted aspects of imported farming techniques to actively create innovative strategies for negotiating life under colonial rule.

"A Starving Belly Doesn't Listen to Explanations": Agricultural Evangelism in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1900 to 1962

Both missionaries and government policymakers in colonial Zimbabwe consciously identified agriculture as an important avenue in establishing broader paradigms of explanation. Missionary promotion of new farming practices inevitably challenged the existing spiritual landscape by insisting that rationalized individual labor could overcome powerful natural forces. This article examines various facets of the American-based Methodist Episcopal Church's agricultural evangelism in a period of growing state intervention. Despite careful missionary attempts to manage the outcomes, individuals with their own agendas absorbed and transformed these policies. Local farmers utilized imported agricultural knowledge for their own purposes and did not conform to the experiences or expectations of American-trained agricultural missionaries. Within these mission communities, converts successfully blended new forms of worship with existing social priorities and also adapted aspects of imported farming techniques to actively create innovative strategies for negotiating life under colonial rule.

Some Comparative Notes on Proto-Oceanic *mana: Inside and Outside the Austronesian Family

In a recent article, Blust (2007) presents a comprehensive summary of the etymology of Proto-Oceanic *mana ‘potent, effectual; supernatural power’, highlighting an ancient association between this word and the powerful forces of nature. Here I present new lexical data from Oceanic, Central Malayo-Polynesian, and South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages that support the reconstruction of Proto–Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *mana ‘supernatural power, associated with spirits of the ancestors and the forces of nature’. Lexical comparisons from non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea suggest significant prehistoric contact between Austronesian and non-Austronesian speakers, and may support a connection between the meaning of Proto–Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *mana, and the semantics of Proto–Western Malayo-Polynesian *mana(q) ‘inherit(ance)’.

Rhythms of the Political: Peadar O'Donnell's Rural Fiction

In Peadar O'Donnell's last novel Proud Island, the author says of one character that "Susan Duffy . . . was a puzzle to people who liked to see life whole."1 This description could also be applied to many of the most interesting characters in his fiction, who are defined by troubled relationships to their homeland, and perhaps it captures the challenge of reading O'Donnell as well. In the shift from an individual to a community—from "Susan Duffy" to "people"—this single sentence embodies what may well be the primary issue in O'Donnell's work: the struggle between individual desires and communal patterns. The sentence also explicitly addresses an attitude toward tradition, summed up in the phrase "people who liked to see life whole," that is the elusive source of the energy in O'Donnell's prose—an intermittently yearning and satirical approach to group identity. O'Donnell's reputation as a literary figure is inextricable from his growing reputation as a political figure, as both a nationalist and a socialist—roles in which he forcefully expressed his solidarity with nation and class. But terms like "nationalist" and "socialist," while they aptly describe parts of O'Donnell's nonliterary life, at best can only obliquely reveal the considerable power of his fiction. Peadar O'Donnell is a writer of place—Donegal—and he knows and loves that place in ways that complement his life of public activism.2 Like more famous writers of the Irish Renaissance, most relevantly John Millington Synge, O'Donnell captures in great detail the world that was passing at the beginning [End Page 111] of the twentieth century. His knowledge of that part of the world was an insider's: born in western Donegal in 1893, his careers in early life included teaching, trade union organizing, and being a soldier. Peter Hegarty's thorough and readable 1999 study Peadar O'Donnell provides a rich recreation of his life and place, especially the social history of the part of the county called the Rosses and the political movements that provided the framework for all of O'Donnell's various careers.3 O'Donnell was active in the IRA, spent most of 1922 through 1924 in Irish jails, and became an ardent socialist. Storm, the first of his seven novels, appeared in 1925. In 1940 he founded The Bell, with Sean O'Faolain; O'Donnell served as editor 1946 to 1954. He remained active in Irish and global politics up until his death in 1986, achieving a sort of celebrity status late in life.4 Recent years have seen three very substantial monographs devoted to O'Donnell, which have provided more thorough treatments of his literary, personal, and political activities.5 O'Donnell's fiction portrays the lives of the rural villagers of Donegal, and much of the strength of this fiction seems to come from its nuanced representation of the relationship between tradition and change. O'Donnell's novels create a rhythmic alternation between the two human states of powerlessness and power. Many critics, in describing the strengths of O'Donnell's fiction, have praised his skill in rendering rural life by employing the literary categories of "realism" and "character." In The Irish Novel: A Critical History, James M. Cahalan discusses O'Donnell under the heading of "Exposé of Ireland: Realists, 1920–55"; more particularly, Cahalan sees O'Donnell as the successor to Liam O'Flaherty, and sees in him a writer who succeeds in portraying both the politics [End Page 112] of class and the powerful natural forces in the West of Ireland.6 As an example of critics' appreciation of O'Donnell's skill at creating character, Alexander G. Gonzalez writes of some of O'Donnell's most memorable portraits: "The everyday quality of their lives is better rendered, I believe, than by any other rural Irish novelist, past or present. Islanders and The Big Windows are...

Undomesticated ground: recasting nature as feminist space

From Mother Earth to Mother Nature, women have for centuries been associated with nature. Feminists, troubled by the way in which such representations show women controlled by powerful natural forces and confined to domestic space, have sought to distance themselves from nature. In Undomesticated Ground, Stacy Alaimo issues a bold call to reclaim nature as feminist space. Her analysis of a remarkable range of feminist writings-as well as of popular journalism, visual arts, television, and film-powerfully demonstrates that nature has been and continues to be an essential concept for feminist theory and practice.Alaimo urges feminist theorists to rethink the concept of nature by probing the vastly different meanings that it carries. She discusses its significance for Americans engaged in social and political struggles from, for example, the Indian Wars of the early nineteenth century, to the birth control movement in the 1920s, to contemporary battles against racism and heterosexism. Reading works by Catherine Sedgwick, Mary Austin, Emma Goldman, Nella Larson, Donna Haraway, Toni Morrison, and others, Alaimo finds that some of these writers strategically invoke nature for feminist purposes while others cast nature as a postmodern agent of resistance in the service of both environmentalism and the women's movement.By examining the importance of nature within literary and political texts, this book greatly expands the parameters of the nature writing genre and establishes nature as a crucial site for the cultural work of feminism.

J. M. W. Turner's Pembroke Castle: Clearing Up of a Thunderstorm (1806)

As the title of this watercolour suggests, its explicit focus is Pembroke Harbour, shortly after a storm. Like many of Turner's paintings, this one is about the interaction of human beings with the more powerful forces of nature. Sea and sky dominate the painting. The water is still rough, the winds still high. In the distance,Pembroke Castle stands like a fortified beachhead, yet in its dark stony stillness it seems dwarfed by the natural forces that surround it and which it seeks to withstand. In the middle distance, the boats that had previously sought refuge in the harbour now race out to sea. Two kinds of English power seem to be portrayed here. On one hand, there is Pembroke Castle which, like Constable's Hadleigh Castle, expresses an older idea of Englishness, linked to the power of its fortifications, a fortress that braves the weather. On the other, a new kind of power is expressed in the English commercial and fishing fleets, which derive their strength not from struggling against nature, but by precariously riding the waves and employing the winds to their advantage. For Turner, England was an island nation, its strength and security closely linked to the sea that surrounded it and to the power of its commercial fleets. Pembroke Castle: Clearing Up of a Thunderstorm can be said then to be both a marinescape and a historical painting, for it sets a new idea of English strength, the boats, against an older one, the castle, juxtaposing the present with the past.

The Spanish Influenza Epidemic in San Diego, 1918-1919

1918, WHILE THE ALLIED and Central Powers were engaged in the man-made disaster of World War I, it was necessary to battle a still greater enemy. When one thinks of natural disasters, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes are likely to come to mind. Although these powerful forces of nature have taken a substantial toll in life and property throughout human history, epidemic disease has been a more lethal and frightful killer. Such was the case during only four months late in 1918 and early in 1919, when a worldwide flu epidemic, the worst epidemic of modern times, without a known cause or effective cure, mysteriously killed well over 21 million people, including fully 550,000 Americans, civilians and military personnel. During the same period, the American army in Europe, the American Expeditionary Force or AEF, lost at least 35,000 soldiers in battle or from wounds received in battle and another 11,000 to influenza and pneumonia. From another perspective, the combined battle deaths of United States Armed Forces personnel in World War I, World War II, and the Korean and Vietnamese conflicts does not equal what the nation lost to Spanish influenza.1

In Quest of Ms. Mouse

In Quest of Ms. Mouse Helen Kay (bio) The story of the mouse in search of a husband has been told many times in many lands over the last several thousand years. While the mutations of the story provide interesting material for the folklorist, there is particular fascination in tracing the varying social attitudes towards a marriageable woman, as they are represented in the fable. One of the earliest versions is found in a folk tale from Greece, called The Mouse and His Daughter."1 In this telling, the mouse father, proud of his possession, a beautiful daughter, wishes to find her "a worthy suitor . . . but not a mouse . . ." The father can find no one fit for "my little girl" until he approaches the sun, suggesting "I could not give her to anyone else, but someone like you"—that is, the strongest. The sun confesses that he can be hidden by a cloud; the cloud claims that he can be scattered by the wind; the wind asserts that he is not really the strongest either because "he cannot blow a Tower down." As to the Tower, "to cut a long story short," he has digging within his walls a suitable husband for the beautiful mouse daughter—another mouse. The Japanese also claim this tale under two titles: The Beautiful Mouse Girl,2 and The Mouse's Wedding.3 Here both parents worry about a husband for their daughter "Lovely." None of her many suitors pleases them. The father says: "I am going to search for the most powerful being in the world" as a fit husband for Lovely. The father ends up before a blank wall, but within the wall lives a most powerful mouse, and a very obliging Lovely is happy to marry the mouse her father has found for her. In these early versions, the socializing purpose seems subordinate to the wit and dry humor of the animal fable. This balance changes over the centuries, as we may see when the Greek fables ascribed to Aesop (500 B.C.) spread to India, where they became part of the Panchatantra or Five Books, written in Sanskrit about 200 B.C.4 The Five Books are a compilation of moral tales written by a holy man to educate a rajah and his three sons, and among them we find the tale of the marrying mouse. There is an interesting difference between the Indian animal tales and the Greek fables on which they are based. In the Greek animal stories, the animals always act in accordance with what is believed to be their "natural behavior." As G. K. Chesterton defined it: in "Aesop or Babrius or whatever his name, a wolf is always wolfish; a fox always foxy." The Indian fable has a style of its own; here animals "are treated without regard to their special nature, as if merely men masked in animal form."5 In The Mouse Maiden, the heroine is at first a mouse dropped by a falcon into the lap of a childless guru as he meditates on the shore of the Ganges. In time she grows into a beautiful maiden; and when she is twelve years old, of marriageable age, her guru-father begins an unsuccessful search for "the strongest" as a bridegroom. He looks only among the most powerful forces of nature—the sun, the cloud, the wind, and a mountain (which replaces the original wall or tower). All the powerful [End Page 165] elements confess their own weakness and refuse the match. "Only between two persons who are well-matched in means and in blood should there be a marriage or friendship, but not between high or low."6 The caste system of like-to-like is maintained. Within the mountain is a strong, tunnelling mouse, and the maiden begs to be metamorphosed back into a mouse so she can enter his little hole in the mountain and join him in marriage. The stories from The Five Books travelled by various routes into the oral and written traditions of all the countries of the world; and every country in its own way adopted the tale of the marriageable mouse, "The Mouse Maid Made Mouse...

Recent developments in the dynamics of wind‐erosion

Those particles of the Earth's land‐surface that are in contact with the atmosphere are at the mercy of two powerful natural forces, resulting from water‐ and air‐flow. The story a single soil‐grain could tell of its travels would surpass that of Marco Polo. It is unfortunate that one cannot “get the story” and thus answer many questions that are in the minds of those who wish to explain and control its behavior.The transport of granular material by fluids has been a subject of intense interest, especially in connection with flowing water. A great number of investigations have been made, both in the laboratory and in streams, on the effects of water‐erosion and the underlying mechanisms of the movement of debris. As a result, at least for some phases of the process, explanations and empirical rules have been developed.