Poultry Processing Environment Research Articles

Comparative Gene Expression Analysis of Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 in Ground Chicken Extract and Brain Heart Infusion Broth.

Salmonella enterica Typhimurium DT104 (S. Typhimurium DT104) is an important foodborne pathogen that is associated with poultry and poultry products. Currently, there is very little information on the underlying molecular mechanisms that allow DT104 to survive and propagate in poultry meat and the poultry processing environment. The current study assessed the global gene expression of DT104 in ground chicken extract (GCE) compared to brain heart infusion (BHI) medium using RNA-Seq technology. DT104 was grown to the early stationary phase (ESP), inoculated into GCE or BHI, and then re-grown to the log phase before RNA was extracted and transcripts were quantified by RNA-Seq. Gene expression for DT104 grown in GCE was then compared to that of DT104 grown in BHI for samples grown to the ESP. Growth in GCE resulted in the up-regulated expression of genes related to translation, carnitine metabolism (23-283-fold change), and cobalamin (vitamin B12) biosynthesis (14-fold change). In particular, the presence of carnitine in chicken meat, and thus, in GCE, which lacks carbohydrates, may allow Salmonella to utilize this compound as a carbon and nitrogen source. This study demonstrates that RNA-Seq data can provide a comprehensive analysis of DT104 gene expression in a food model for poultry products. This study also provides additional evidence for the importance of metabolic adaptation in the ability of S. enterica to successfully adapt to and occupy niches outside of its host and provides potential targets that could be used to develop intervention strategies to control Salmonella in poultry.

Increase in temperature facilitates Campylobacter jejuni biofilm formation under both aerobic and microaerobic incubation

The formation of Campylobacter jeuni biofilms on processing surfaces is a significant concern in poultry processing, contributing to food safety risks. This study focused on assessing the biofilm forming capabilities of 12 field isolates of C. jejuni of different aerotolerance categories on stainless steel surfaces, a prevalent material in poultry processing environments. Working cultures of each isolate were prepared to approximately 6 log CFU/mL and incubated on stainless steel coupons under microaerobic or aerobic conditions at room temperature or 42°C for 72 h. Biofilm attached cells were enumerated using direct plating and biofilm density was measured using a crystal violet assay by measuring the optical density (OD600) a. Data analysis was conducted using the PROC GLIMMIX procedure in SAS 9.4 with a significance level of 0.05. The study revealed a notable interaction between aerotolerance categories and temperature (P < 0.039) impacting the number of biofilms attached C. jejuni cells on stainless steel coupons. All isolates had significantly higher counts when incubated at 42°C compared to room temperature, regardless of oxygen level (P < 0.001). Furthermore, stronger biofilm density was observed at 42°C compared to room temperature, regardless of oxygen level. These findings underscore the influence of temperature on the biofilm forming ability of C. jejuni. The ability of these field isolates to form biofilms under various environmental conditions suggests a heightened potential for surface colonization and increased infection risk in poultry processing facilities.

Exploring multi-antibiotic resistance in Arcobacter butzleri isolates from a poultry processing plant in northern Italy: An in-depth inquiry

Arcobacter butzleri is a foodborne pathogen that has been identified in various animal-derived foods, notably in poultry meat. The prevalence of this bacterium in poultry underscores the need for comprehensive investigations into its dissemination within poultry meat processing plants. Such assessments are critical due to the potential cross-contamination that may occur, impacting the safety of the final food product. This study endeavours to evaluate the genomic similarity of 56 A. butzleri isolates obtained from chicken carcasses (specifically neck skins and caecum, post-slaughter) and equipment surfaces following cleaning and sanitizing procedures. All samples originate from a poultry slaughterhouse in Northern Italy. The genomic analysis includes single nucleotide polymorphism, average nucleotide identity, and core genome multi-locus sequence typing analysis, aiming to discern potential cross-contamination between carcasses and equipment. The study evaluates antibiotic resistance, biofilm production, and host cell colonization of A. butzleri strains through in vitro assays. Genomic de-replication reveals the presence of 31 distinct strains. Results elucidate that a portion of these strains is evident in multiple sources, indicative of cross-contamination even post-cleaning and sanitization. The in vitro tests underline multi-antibiotic resistance of A. butzleri with genes associated with antibiotic resistance, among them mexAB-oprM, showing a correlation to the observed resistance. This study establishes the colonization capability of A. butzleri strains on a human gut mucus-secreting cell model, suggesting a potential virulence factor. Detection of various putative virulence genes further supports the hypothesis of strains virulence potential. This study holds importance of A. butzleri as it unveils the antibiotic resistance and pathogenic capabilities inherent in this species, identifying associated genetic traits. Through comprehensive genomic analysis, it was conclusively validated instances of cross-contamination between various sources and equipment surfaces, underscoring the pervasive dissemination of this bacterium within a food processing plant and its persistence. This research serves as an exploration into the intricate dynamics of A. butzleri within poultry processing environments. It accentuates the imperative for stringent hygiene protocols and ongoing surveillance to curtail the risk of cross-contamination, thereby ensuring the safety of poultry products for discerning consumers.

Characterizing the formation and cross-contamination potential of multi-species biofilms in poultry processing environments: S. Enteritidis, C. jejuni and C. perfringens

This study investigated the cross-contamination dynamics of biofilms preformed on stainless steel (SS) coupons on chicken skin and chicken meat by modeling surface-to-food transfer by contact and surface-to-food transfer in fluids. Additionally, mono-, dual-, and multi-species biofilms were examined to understand the effects of environmental conditions on biofilm-forming abilities. The results of crystal violet (CV) assay revealed that a dual-species biofilm of Salmonella Enteritidis with Campylobacter jejuni and a multi-species biofilm of S. Enteritidis with C. jejuni and Clostridium perfringens cultivated for 72 h under aerobic conditions exhibited significantly higher biofilm-forming abilities than the other biofilm types. Consistent with the CV assay findings, the multi-species biofilm exhibited significantly higher extracellular DNA and protein levels than the other biofilm types. Furthermore, the results highlighted the significant increase in cultivable counts when S. Enteritidis formed dual- or multi-species biofilms with C. jejuni or C. perfringens, indicating a synergistic effect among the strains. Additionally, the analysis of cross-contamination models revealed that the pressing method induced greater cross-contamination across most biofilm types irrespective of the food sample or biofilm characteristics. This suggests that surface-to-food contact played a more influential role in cross-contamination than surface-to-food interactions in fluids. Overall, our findings provide insights into the intricate dynamics of preformed biofilms on SS coupons in contact with chicken skin and meat, underscoring the significance of the relationship between biofilm formation and cross-contamination.

Antimicrobial Tolerance in Salmonella: Contributions to Survival and Persistence in Processing Environments.

Salmonella remains a top bacterial pathogen implicated in several food-borne outbreaks, despite the use of antimicrobials and sanitizers during production and processing. While these chemicals have been effective, Salmonella has shown the ability to survive and persist in poultry processing environments. This can be credited to its microbial ability to adapt and develop/acquire tolerance and/or resistance to different antimicrobial agents including oxidizers, acids (organic and inorganic), phenols, and surfactants. Moreover, there are several factors in processing environments that can limit the efficacy of these antimicrobials, thus allowing survival and persistence. This mini-review examines the antimicrobial activity of common disinfectants/sanitizers used in poultry processing environments and the ability of Salmonella to respond with innate or acquired tolerance and survive exposure to persists in such environments. Instead of relying on a single antimicrobial agent, the right combination of different disinfectants needs to be developed to target multiple pathways within Salmonella.

Market characteristics, &lt;em&gt;Salmonella&lt;/em&gt; prevalence and associated risk practices in poultry processing environments in wet markets in Sri Lanka

Market characteristics, &lt;em&gt;Salmonella&lt;/em&gt; prevalence and associated risk practices in poultry processing environments in wet markets in Sri Lanka

Roles of Aerotolerance, Biofilm Formation, and Viable but Non-Culturable State in the Survival of Campylobacter jejuni in Poultry Processing Environments.

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of foodborne human gastroenteritis in the developed world. This bacterium colonizes in the ceca of chickens, spreads throughout the poultry production chain, and contaminates poultry products. Despite numerous on farm intervention strategies and developments in post-harvest antimicrobial treatments, C. jejuni is frequently detected on broiler meat products. This indicates that C. jejuni is evolving over time to overcome the stresses/interventions that are present throughout poultry production and processing. The development of aerotolerance has been reported to be a major survival strategy used by C. jejuni in high oxygen environments. Recent studies have indicated that C. jejuni can enter a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state or develop biofilm in response to environmental stressors such as refrigeration and freezing stress and aerobic stress. This review provides an overview of different stressors that C. jejuni are exposed to throughout the poultry production chain and the genotypic and phenotypic survival mechanisms, with special attention to aerotolerance, biofilm formation, and development of the VBNC state.

Virulence and antimicrobial resistance profile of non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica serovars recovered from poultry processing environments at wet markets in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

The rapid emergence of virulent and multidrug-resistant (MDR) non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) enterica serovars is a growing public health concern globally. The present study focused on the assessment of the pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiling of NTS enterica serovars isolated from the chicken processing environments at wet markets in Dhaka, Bangladesh. A total of 870 samples consisting of carcass dressing water (CDW), chopping board swabs (CBS), and knife swabs (KS) were collected from 29 wet markets. The prevalence of Salmonella was found to be 20% in CDW, 19.31% in CBS, and 17.58% in KS, respectively. Meanwhile, the MDR Salmonella was found to be 72.41%, 73.21%, and 68.62% in CDW, CBS, and KS, respectively. All isolates were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for eight virulence genes, namely invA, agfA, IpfA, hilA, sivH, sefA, sopE, and spvC. The S. Enteritidis and untyped Salmonella isolates harbored all virulence genes while S. Typhimurium isolates carried six virulence genes, except sefA and spvC. Phenotypic resistance revealed decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, streptomycin, ampicillin, tetracycline, gentamicin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, and azithromycin. Genotypic resistance showed a higher prevalence of plasmid-mediated blaTEM followed by tetA, sul1, sul2, sul3, and strA/B genes. The phenotypic and genotypic resistance profiles of the isolates showed a harmonic and symmetrical trend. According to the findings, MDR and virulent NTS enterica serovars predominate in wet market conditions and can easily enter the human food chain. The chi-square analysis showed significantly higher associations among the phenotypic resistance, genotypic resistance and virulence genes in CDW, CBS, and KS respectively (p < 0.05).

Prevalence of Salmonella enterica in poultry processing lines of central Kerala

Salmonella enterica is the most pathogenic species frequently responsible for foodborne Salmonella infections in humans. Occurrence of Salmonella enterica in poultry processing lines is a potential risk for the contamination of poultry meat and processing environment. Crosscontamination of carcasses by Salmonella spp. during processing could pose food safety risks. Therefore, the present study involved the detection of Salmonella enterica in the poultry processing lines. The cloacal swabs, caecal contents and carcass rinsates of the birds were collected from processing lines of two processing plants one each from Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala. The Salmonella spp. were isolated by conventional culture technique on Xylose–lysine deoxycholate agar. The molecular confirmation of Salmonella spp. and S. enterica was carried out by targeting invA and iroB gene, respectively. Out of 450 samples analysed from both the processing lines, 14.22 per cent of the isolates were found to be positive for Salmonella spp. by PCR. The invA gene was detected in 67.19 per cent of the isolates and iroB genes was detected in 81.4 per cent of the Salmonella spp. isolates. Implementation of standard sanitation protocol and hygiene strategies is required to reduce cross-contamination of poultry carcasses.

Using farm management practices to predict Campylobacter prevalence in pastured poultry farms

Contamination of poultry products by Campylobacter is often associated with farm management practices and processing plant practices. A longitudinal study was conducted on 11 pastured poultry farms in southeastern United States from 2014 to 2017. In this study, farm practices and processing variables were used as predictors for a random forest (RF) model to predict Campylobacter prevalence in pastured poultry farms and processing environments. Individual RF models were constructed for fecal, soil and whole carcass rinse after processing (WCR-P) samples. The performance of models was evaluated by the area under curve (AUC) from the receiver operating characteristics curve. The AUC values were 0.902, 0.894, and 0.864 for fecal, soil, and WCR-P models, respectively. Relative importance plots were generated to predict the most important variable in each RF model. Animal source of feces was identified as the most important variable in fecal model and the soy content of the brood feed was the most important variable for soil model. For WCR-P model, the average flock age showed the strongest impact on RF model. These RF models can help pastured poultry growers with food safety control strategies to reduce Campylobacter prevalence in pastured poultry farms.

Prevalence, virulence characterization, and genetic relatedness of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from chicken retail points and poultry slaughterhouses in Turkey.

Listeria monocytogenes is one of the most important foodborne pathogens and is a causal agent of listeriosis in humans and animals. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, serogroups, antibiotic susceptibility, virulence factor genes, and genetic relatedness of L. monocytogenes strains isolated from 500 poultry samples in Turkey. The isolation sources of 103 L. monocytogenes strains were retail markets (n = 100) and slaughterhouses (n = 3). L. monocytogenes strains were identified as serogroups 1/2a-3a (75.7%, lineage I), 1/2c-3c (14.56%, lineage I), 1/2b-3b-7 (5.82%, lineage II), 4a-4c (2.91%, lineage III), and 4b-4d-4e (0.97%, lineage III). Most of the L. monocytogenes strains (93.2%) were susceptible to the antibiotics tested. PCR analysis indicated that the majority of the strains (95% to 100%) contained most of the virulence genes (hylA, plcA, plcB, prfA, mpl, actA, dltA, fri, flaA inlA, inlC, and inlJ). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) demonstrated that there were 18 pulsotypes grouped at a similarity of > 90% among the strains. These results indicate that it is necessary to prevent the presence of L. monocytogenes in the poultry-processing environments to help prevent outbreaks of listeriosis and protect public health.

Comparison between random forest and gradient boosting machine methods for predicting Listeria spp. prevalence in the environment of pastured poultry farms.

Foodborne pathogens such as Listeria spp. contain the ability to survive and multiply in poultry farming environments, which provides a route of contamination for poultry processing environments and final poultry products. An understanding of the effect of meteorological variables on the prevalence of Listeria spp. in the farming environment is lacking. Soil and feces samples were collected from 11 pastured poultry farms from 2014 to 2017. Random forest (RF) and gradient boosting machine (GBM) predictive models were generated to describe and predict Listeria spp. prevalence in feces and soil samples based on meteorological factors at the farming location. This study attempted to demonstrate the use of GBM models in a food safety context and compare their use to RF models. Both feces models performed very well, with area under the curve (AUC) values of 0.905 and 0.855 for the RF and GBM models, respectively. The soil GBM model outperformed the RF model with AUCs of 0.873 and 0.700, respectively. The developed models can be used to predict the prevalence of Listeria spp. in pastured poultry farm environments and should be of great use to poultry farmers, producers, and risk managers.

Phenotypic and genotypic drug resistance profile of Salmonella serovars isolated from poultry farm and processing units located in and around Mumbai city, India.

Background and Aim:The extensive use of antimicrobials in poultry has led to an increase in bacterial multidrug resistance, and the emergence of multidrug-resistant nontyphoidal Salmonella is a global problem. This study was performed to detect antibiotic-resistant Salmonella serovars in poultry farming and processing environment.Materials and Methods:A total of 956 various samples, comprising 432 farm origin, 324 poultry processing stage wise and environmental, and 154 product processing stages and environmental samples, were collected from poultry farms and processing units located in and around Mumbai city. Of a total of 71 recovered isolates, 42 randomly selected Salmonella isolates were subjected for antibiotic susceptibility testing by disk diffusion method and serotyping. A total of 31 serotypically confirmed isolates were characterized for the presence of tetA, tetB, blaTEM, and CTX-M gene.Results:Higher resistance was recorded against Doxycycline (100%), followed by Oxytetracycline (97.62%), Neomycin (88.10%), Erythromycin (83.33%), Tetracycline (78.57%), and Ceftizoxime (35.71%). Resistance from 0.00 to 26.19 percent was found to antimicrobials, namely Norfloxacin (26.19%), Ampicillin (21.43%), Azithromycin (21.43%), Ciprofloxacin (19.05%), Colistin (4.76%), Streptomycin (16.67%), Cefotaxime (14.19%), Enrofloxacin (14.29%), Amoxyclav (14.29%), Gentamicin (7.14%), Chloramphenicol (4.76%), Amikacin (4.76%), and Ceftazidime (0.0%). Results demonstrate that the Salmonella Virchow dominated and all serotypes were found to carry Tetracycline resistance gene tetA, 5 isolates were found to be positive for blaTEM, whereas none of the isolates were carrying tetB and CTX-M gene.Conclusion:This study revealed that there is a significant rise of Tetracycline resistance with the presence of tetA gene in Salmonella spp. which indicates selective pressure for adopting resistance against tetracycline group of antibiotics.

Effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the sanitizer sensitivity of Salmonella Enteritidis biofilm cells in chicken juice

Salmonella Enteritidis may be encountered in poultry processing plants in the form of biofilms on food contact surfaces. Little is known about the fate of Salmonella in mixed-species biofilms with other bacteria commonly found in food processing environment. Thus, the objectives of this study were to determine biofilm formation and sanitizer resistance of two S. Enteritidis strains (rdar and bdar, cellulose expression positive and negative, respectively), in the absence and presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, under conditions encountered in poultry processing plants. S. Enteritidis in single-species and dual-species biofilms with P. aeruginosa at two mixed ratios (Salmonella: Pseudomonas cells at 1:1 and 0.01:1, respectively) were formed on stainless steel coupons in chicken juice for 6 days at 25 °C. On days 1 and 6 of the incubation period, biofilm cell populations were determined before and after chlorine treatment (50 ppm, 1 min). Results showed that population of S. Enteritidis in dual-species biofilms was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that in single-species biofilms on day 6. On the other hand, S. Enteritidis in dual-species biofilms demonstrated greater chlorine resistance, with an average of 1 log CFU/cm2 lower reduction than that in single-species biofilms, except for the rdar strain which became more sensitive to chlorine treatment in dual-species biofilms after 6 days. Fluorescence microscopy images showed that more glycoconjugates were present in the dual-species biofilms, which might have contributed to the enhanced chlorine resistance of S. Enteritidis. Thus, this study indicates that although the presence of P. aeruginosa could negatively influence S. Enteritidis biofilm formation, it might protect Salmonella cells from sanitizer treatment in poultry processing environment.

Susceptibility of Salmonella Biofilm and Planktonic Bacteria to Common Disinfectant Agents Used in Poultry Processing

Poultry contaminated with Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica are a major cause of zoonotic foodborne gastroenteritis. Salmonella Heidelberg is a common serotype of Salmonella that has been implicated as a foodborne pathogen associated with the consumption of improperly prepared chicken. To better understand the effectiveness of common antimicrobial disinfectants (i.e., peroxyacetic acid [PAA], acidified hypochlorite [aCH], and cetylpyridinium chloride [CPC]), environmental isolates of nontyphoidal Salmonella were exposed to these agents under temperature, concentration, and contact time conditions consistent with poultry processing. Under simulated processing conditions (i.e., chiller tank and dipping stations), the bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects of each disinfectant were assessed against biofilm and planktonic cultures of each organism in a disinfectant challenge. Log reductions, planktonic MICs, and mean biofilm eradication concentrations were computed. The biofilms of each Salmonella isolate were more resistant to the disinfectants than were their planktonic counterparts. Although PAA was bacteriostatic and bactericidal against the biofilm and planktonic Salmonella isolates tested at concentrations up to 64 times the concentrations commonly used in a chiller tank during poultry processing, aCH was ineffective against the same isolates under identical conditions. At the simulated 8-s dipping station, CPC was bacteriostatic against all seven and bactericidal against six of the seven Salmonella isolates in their biofilm forms at concentrations within the regulatory range. These results indicate that at the current contact times and concentrations, aCH and PAA are not effective against these Salmonella isolates in their biofilm state. The use of CPC should be considered as a tool for controlling Salmonella biofilms in poultry processing environments.

Prevalence of Salmonella in poultry processing environments in wet markets in Penang and Perlis, Malaysia.

Aim:The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of various Salmonella serotypes in chickens, carcass contact surfaces as well as environmental samples collected from wet markets and small scale processing plant.Materials and Methods:A total of 182 poultry and environmental samples were collected at random on separate occasions from wet markets and small scale processing plant, during the period of October 2014 to July 2015 in Penang and Perlis, Malaysia. The samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella using ISO 6579:2002 conventional culture-based method. Presumptive Salmonella colonies were subjected to various biochemical tests (such as triple sugar iron and lysine iron test), serologically confirmed using polyvalent O and H antisera and further serotyped at Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Perak, Malaysia.Results:Salmonella serotypes were isolated from 161 out of 182 samples (88.46%) with 100% prevalence in the whole chicken carcass and chicken cuts - as well as transport crate, cage, drum, knife, chopping board, display table, floor, bench wash water, wash water, and drain water. Salmonella was isolated from 91.67%, 83.33%, and 66.67% of defeathering machines, drain swabs, and apron, respectively. 17 serotypes were isolated in this study with Salmonella Albany (57/161), Salmonella Corvallis (42/161), and Salmonella Brancaster (37/161) being the predominant serovars.Conclusion:The most carcass contact and environmental samples collected along the wet market chicken processing line were consistently contaminated with Salmonella. This indicates that Salmonella has established itself in poultry processing environments by colonizing the surfaces of the equipment and survives in these environments by establishing biofilms. Our results highlight the need of implementing strict hygiene and sanitation standards to reduce the incidence of Salmonella. The prevalence of Salmonella in poultry can be reduced effectively by identifying and eliminating the sources and contamination sites during slaughter and processing of poultry.

Genome Analysis of Listeria monocytogenes Sequence Type 8 Strains Persisting in Salmon and Poultry Processing Environments and Comparison with Related Strains.

Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen responsible for the disease listeriosis, and can be found throughout the environment, in many foods and in food processing facilities. The main cause of listeriosis is consumption of food contaminated from sources in food processing environments. Persistence in food processing facilities has previously been shown for the L. monocytogenes sequence type (ST) 8 subtype. In the current study, five ST8 strains were subjected to whole-genome sequencing and compared with five additionally available ST8 genomes, allowing comparison of strains from salmon, poultry and cheese industry, in addition to a human clinical isolate. Genome-wide analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) confirmed that almost identical strains were detected in a Danish salmon processing plant in 1996 and in a Norwegian salmon processing plant in 2001 and 2011. Furthermore, we show that L. monocytogenes ST8 was likely to have been transferred between two poultry processing plants as a result of relocation of processing equipment. The SNP data were used to infer the phylogeny of the ST8 strains, separating them into two main genetic groups. Within each group, the plasmid and prophage content was almost entirely conserved, but between groups, these sequences showed strong divergence. The accessory genome of the ST8 strains harbored genetic elements which could be involved in rendering the ST8 strains resilient to incoming mobile genetic elements. These included two restriction-modification loci, one of which was predicted to show phase variable recognition sequence specificity through site-specific domain shuffling. Analysis indicated that the ST8 strains harbor all important known L. monocytogenes virulence factors, and ST8 strains are commonly identified as the causative agents of invasive listeriosis. Therefore, the persistence of this L. monocytogenes subtype in food processing facilities poses a significant concern for food safety.

The Effects of 405-nm Visible Light on the Survival of Campylobacter on Chicken Skin and Stainless Steel.

Campylobacter spp. are foodborne pathogens responsible for a significant portion of human cases of bacterial-mediated gastrointestinal disease. A primary method for the introduction of Campylobacter into the food supply is through poultry products. Reducing the number of Campylobacter on poultry products may reduce the incidence of human disease. Research has been conducted on the use of light to inactivate Campylobacter on poultry products and processing environments. More recently, the use of high intensity visible 405-nm light has been proposed for the elimination of pathogenic bacteria. This study investigated the ability of 405-nm light to reduce Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in poultry products. Campylobacter in chicken exudate were placed onto chicken skin or food-grade stainless steel before treatment with 405-nm light. A range of 405-nm light doses were applied to cocktails of six C. jejuni or six C. coli strains in exudate at 10°C to minimize thermal effects. Little difference was observed between inactivation of C. jejuni and C. coli on poultry skin with only minor average reductions of 1.7 logs and 2.1 logs, respectively, at the maximal dose of 184-186 J/cm(2). More noticeable differences were observed when the samples were placed on stainless steel and treated with a dose of 89 J/cm(2), producing an average reduction of 3.0 logs for C. coli but only 1.1 logs for C. jejuni. The maximal dose (181-183 J/cm(2)) applied to Campylobacter on stainless steel produced significant (p ≤ 0.05) reductions for C. jejuni and C. coli of 4.9 logs and 5.1 logs, respectively. However, significant 405-nm-mediated reductions in Campylobacter numbers required exposure times to achieve necessary dose levels that might be impractical under processing conditions. In addition, the most potent exposure times likely produced secondary thermal effects by raising sample surface temperatures above 48°C.

The characterization of Salmonella enterica serotypes isolated from the scalder tank water of a commercial poultry processing plant: Recovery of a multidrug-resistant Heidelberg strain

The recent multistate outbreak of a multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella Heidelberg strain from commercial poultry production highlights the need to better understand the reservoirs of these zoonotic pathogens within the commercial poultry production and processing environment. As part of a larger study looking at temporal changes in microbial communities within the major water tanks within a commercial processing facility, this paper identifies and characterizes Salmonella enterica isolated from the water in a final scalder tank at 3 times during a typical processing day: prior to the birds entering the tank (start), halfway through the processing day (mid), and after the final birds were scalded (end). Over 3 consecutive processing days, no Salmonella were recovered from start-of-day water samples, while a total of 56 Salmonella isolates were recovered from the mid-day and end-of-day scalder water samples. Traditional and newer PCR-based serotyping methods eventually identified these isolates as either group C3 S. Kentucky (n = 45) and group B S. Heidelberg (n = 11). While none of the S. Kentucky isolates possessed any resistances to the antimicrobials tested, all S. Heidelberg isolates were found to be multidrug resistant to 5 specific antimicrobials representing 3 antimicrobial classes. Due to the potential public health impact of S. Heidelberg and the recent nationwide poultry-associated outbreak of multidrug-resistant S. Heidelberg, future studies should focus on understanding the transmission and environmental growth dynamics of this serotype within the commercial poultry processing plant environment.

Pachydermodactyly From Repetitive Motion in Poultry Processing Workers

Pachydermodactyly is a rare, benign, acquired form of digital fibromatosis. The etiology of pachydermodactyly is unknown but is believed to be due to repeated mechanical injury of the skin. We report 2 cases identified in poultry processing workers and review other conditions associated with these cutaneous findings. The 2 workers in this report were employed as a chicken catcher and a chicken hanger. On examination, both workers had marked lateral thickening of the digits, with associated pain and pruritus. The workers' skin condition developed despite the use of protective gloves, and their symptoms improved when removed from work. However, the swelling due to fibromatosis persisted. Similar cutaneous findings have been reported in other occupations exposing individuals to repetitive skin trauma, and many patients demonstrating a compulsive habit of hand manipulation. This supports the conclusion that pachydermodactyly in these patients reflects repeated skin trauma. Repetitive mechanical injury in the poultry processing environment can result in considerable compensatory tissue changes. Preventive measures are needed to protect workers.