Potential Predators Research Articles

Pristionchus - Beetle associations: Towards a new natural history.

The free-living nematode Pristionchus pacificus has been established as a model system in integrative evolutionary biology by combining laboratory studies with field work and evolutionary biology. Multiple genetic, molecular and experimental tools and a collection of more than 2,500P. pacificus strains and more than 50 Pristionchus species, which are available as living cultures or frozen stock collections, support research on various life history traits. Species of Pristionchus exhibit a number of complex traits unknown from Caenorhabditis elegans and most other free-living nematodes. First, P. pacificus can form two alternative mouth forms, an example of developmental plasticity that is increasingly studied to investigate the role of plasticity as a facilitator of evolutionary novelty. More than a decade of work has identified associated genetic and epigenetic mechanisms and revealed the evolutionary and ecological significance of feeding structure plasticity. Second, one of the two mouth morphs results in predatory behavior against other nematodes and is currently used to investigate the neurobiology of predation. Third, potential predation results in the risk of cannibalism among conspecifics. Strikingly, Pristionchus nematodes have developed a self-recognition system that allows the distinction of self (kin) and non-self. Given all these organismal features, this nematode has recently been considered a key example for research towards a new natural history (West-Eberhard, 2024). Here, I summarize recent work on Pristionchus with a focus on a 'new natural history'. In addition, I review some recent studies that indicate an interaction of Pristionchus with EPNs that was suggested based on various surveys in different ecological habitats.

Observations, perceptions and concerns of the American lobster industry regarding the range-expansion of Black Sea Bass

Fisheries in the U.S. Northeast are being impacted by the effects of climate change in part due to the range expansion of potential predators and competitors. In the Gulf of Maine, the American lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery has expressed concerns about the range-expansion of Black Sea Bass (Centropristis striata). Black Sea Bass occupy similar habitats to lobsters and commonly prey upon decapod crustaceans. However, state independent trawl surveys do not effectively track the Black Sea Bass range expansion, highlighting the value of fishers’ observations and perceptions of this dynamic change. Using a quantitative mixed-mode survey, commercial lobster fishers’ ecological knowledge of Black Sea Bass in the Gulf of Maine was assessed. Fishers noted increasing abundances of Black Sea Bass that coincided with warmer years. Furthermore, the degree to which lobster fishers view that Black Sea Bass will negatively impact the lobster fishery was best predicted by if they think that Black Sea Bass are eating lobsters. This study revealed that fishers are observing the range-expansion and increased prevalence of Black Sea Bass in the waters that they fish for lobsters, which is extremely valuable because it addresses an important gap in our understanding of how climate change is impacting the Gulf of Maine ecosystem. Documenting species range shifts and their potential impacts will benefit ongoing and future fisheries management decisions such as whether efforts to target and remove these species in their newly expanded range should occur.

Interactions between Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) and domestic and wild carnivores in an anthropogenic landscape in Java, Indonesia.

With increasing replacement of native forests with agriculture, it is important to understand the factors allowing non-human primates to persist, including interactions with potential predators. For small-bodied nocturnal primates, smaller carnivores and domestic dogs that often characterise agroforestry landscapes may be a particular threat, especially for primates like slow lorises, which rely on canopy connectivity and are particularly vulnerable on the ground. We present data collected over 12 years in Indonesia. During a long-term study on Javan slow lorises, we used ad libitum sampling to record 703 instances of slow lorises in proximity to wild small carnivores (Javan palm civets, small Indian civets, Sunda leopard cats, Javan ferret badgers) and interactions with small carnivores (62) and domestic dogs (58) respectively. Most of these interactions were neutral or affiliative, including sharing canopy bridges and sleeping sites. Two negative interactions occurred between lorises and wild carnivores; five potential predation events were linked to dogs. Lorises were less active and more vigilant when carnivores were present. AWhatsApp® group facilitated data collection, increasing detail of observations, especially on interactions with domestic dogs. We saw an overall decline in small carnivores, especially nearer to the village, which could be linked to competition with domestic dogs. Abetter understanding of the role of dogs in this changing landscape is vital.

Neighbor Density and Post‐Contact Immobility Duration as Antipredator Behavior: Antlion Larvae Do Not Fit the Selfish Prey Hypothesis

ABSTRACTRemaining immobile for an unpredictable period after being touched by a potential predator (post‐contact immobility, PCI) may favor survival. However, the factors that determine variation in PCI duration are poorly understood. We tested whether PCI duration depends on the surrounding conspecific density (the selfish prey hypothesis) in the tropical antlion larvae Myrmeleon crudelis. These insects avoid predation by being immobile or burying themselves. The selfish prey hypothesis predicts a reduction in the PCI duration as conspecific density increases because this high density of conspecifics around can stimulate the redirection of the predator's interest in other nearby potential prey. In the field, we measured PCI and found that its duration was independent of the conspecific density. In the lab, we also measured the PCI of a subset of the same larvae in the absence of neighbors. Using a paired design, we found that PCI duration was lower in the lab in the absence of neighbors than in the field. Our results suggest that the antlion larvae did not follow the selfish prey hypothesis. We propose two alternative explanations. First, the larvae have a limited ability to detect neighbors in the field and keep up with the changing number of surrounding active pits. Second, burying may be more important than PCI as an antipredator strategy. In our lab experiment, larvae had a more accurate idea of the conspecific density around their pit because they explored the area. We propose that knowing the absence of conspecifics triggered a shorter PCI duration. Under a high predation risk (i.e., no other prey to which the predator would redirect its attention), the larvae select the unequivocal antipredator behavior of burying. This work illustrates the relevance of accurate information in deciding how to avoid predation, especially when prey can prioritize between alternative behaviors, with success varying between the contexts.

Assessment of predation on small semi-aquatic mammals by the Eurasian otter through genetic analysis of spraints

AbstractSmall semi-aquatic mammals play a critical role in the river ecosystem and can be used as bioindicators of environmental health. Many populations of these species are threatened by multiple factors, mainly habitat degradation, but also by other causes such as predation. Among potential predators, the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) is known to prey on some of these species, but the significance of the impact on their populations remains uncertain. To study the effect of the Eurasian otter on the small semi-aquatic mammal community, we collected feces containing hair remains from different rivers in the Iberian Peninsula and used genetic methods to identify the predator and prey species. We identified 83 Eurasian otter spraints containing 25 Iberian desmans (Galemys pyrenaicus), 21 Iberian water shrews (Neomys anomalus), and 28 Southern water voles (Arvicola sapidus). These prey species were recorded in different watersheds throughout the study area and over a long period of time, indicating their widespread presence in the otter diet. These findings are of particular concern for the Iberian desman, given its endangered status. Our results highlight the need to specifically investigate less abundant but ecologically significant groups consumed by the otter, such as semi-aquatic mammals, to better understand the influence of this predator on the riparian ecosystem. In addition, future efforts should address the genetic analysis of feces containing hair remains from different riparian carnivores to assess the impact of predation on the viability of semi-aquatic mammal populations.

Soil-Dwelling Arthropods’ Response to Land Abandonment Is Taxon-Specific in a Mediterranean Olive Grove Agroecosystem

Agricultural land abandonment is an increasing concern in the EU, especially in Mediterranean regions where traditional perennial crops like olive groves are left unmanaged. This study focuses on the impact of land abandonment on soil-dwelling arthropods in olive groves in Monte Pisano, Tuscany, examining ants, spiders, myriapods, and carabids. Using Generalized Linear Mixed Models, the potential olive fruit fly predator community was analyzed over two sampling periods repeated over two years to assess the effects of both abandonment and its proximity to managed fields. Ants were significantly more abundant in managed fields next to abandoned ones, though there were no differences between managed and abandoned fields. Spider abundance did not respond to abandonment nor proximity. Myriapods were more abundant in abandoned fields during the first sampling period, but the proximity of an abandoned field had no effect. Carabids were more abundant in managed fields, especially those adjacent to other managed fields. These results indicate that arthropod responses to abandonment are taxon-specific, highlighting that a mosaic of managed and abandoned fields can both enhance and reduce olive fruit fly predator abundance. Conservation strategies should integrate varying management intensities to optimize biodiversity in Mediterranean agroecosystems. Future research should investigate long-term effects and specific predator responses to abandonment.

New crop, new pest, old ants: Crop colonisation by native ants disrupt biological control of an invasive mealybug in Mediterranean persimmon

Abstract Crop expansion is generally followed by an increase of herbivores. Some of these herbivore species can be favoured by mutualisms with ants that can also colonise introduced crops. Here, we hypothesized that the invasive mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus has established mutualistic relationships with native or exotic ants in Mediterranean persimmon crop. This relationship could negatively impact mealybug natural enemies and facilitate the colonisation of this new crop by the mealybug. To test this hypothesis, we sampled 17 persimmon orchards from the main producing area of the Mediterranean basin across two consecutive years and three different seasons. We identified the ant complex attending Ps. longispinus, calculated the ant attendance ratios and assessed the density dependence between tending ants and Ps. longispinus at mealybug colony level. Finally, we evaluated the effect of ants on the density of Ps. longispinus and its natural enemies at tree level. Fifteen ant species were found foraging in persimmon trees, out of which 11 attended Ps. longispinus colonies. The Mediterranean native species Lasius grandis, Pheidole pallidula and Plagiolepis spp. were the most abundant ant species in the canopies, and La. grandis was the most abundant species attending Ps. longispinus. This ant tended to attend large colonies of the mealybug in spring and summer. Pseudococcus longispinus density was positively correlated with ant activity in persimmon trees, which can be partially explained by the negative effect of ants on the mealybug parasitism and the density of potential predators. This study suggests that the density and damage caused by Ps. longispinus in Mediterranean persimmon are exacerbated by the attendance of native ants that disrupt mealybug biological control. Our results reinforce the hypothesis that ant attendance is a driving factor determining the density of honeydew‐producing herbivores and highlight that native ant species may facilitate the establishment and spread of exotic honeydew‐producing pests in new crops.

Predation rates on flatback turtle Natator depressus eggs and hatchlings at an island rookery

Predation can significantly threaten the vulnerable egg and hatchling stages of sea turtles, yet for most populations this remains poorly quantified for use in conservation. We provided the first quantified predation rates of flatback turtle eggs and hatchlings at Thevenard Island, a medium-sized rookery on the northwest coast of Australia, with a focus on ghost crabs as potential predators. Burrow densities were used as proxy for ghost crab densities, while start- and end-of-season nest inventories and infrared videography were used to quantify egg and hatchling predation, respectively. Inventories of 27 nests suggested a mean hatching success of 74.2 ± 4.6% with zero predation of eggs, while videography at 17 nests indicated that 30.1 ± 8.1% of emerged hatchlings were predated, mainly by ghost crabs. Females selecting nest locations not easily accessible to ghost crabs, or the composition of flatback’s eggshells may explain the lack of egg predation. A 44.0% egg-to-surf survival rate was estimated, almost double the rate estimated for C. caretta on the Ningaloo coast (24.4%) using similar techniques. Further work is needed to understand if those predation rates are sustainable for recovering threatened species and if mitigation efforts tailored to each species and each life stage are needed.

Functional response and control potential of adult Arma chinensis on Colorado potato beetle in Xinjiang, China

AbstractPotato is an important food crop. The Colorado potato beetle (CPB) is its key pest. CPBs are now resistant to several chemical pesticides, making their control more difficult. The predatory insect, Arma chinensis, is a natural enemy of other plant pests. We studied the predation of adult A. chinensis on CPB eggs and young larvae under indoor controlled conditions and its control of CPB in cages under outdoor conditions. Adult A. chinensis effectively reduces CPB egg and larva populations, and its predatory functional response aligns with Holling’s Type II model. A. chinensis adults released within outdoor cages reduced CPB populations. Based on the predation behavior of the adults of A. chinensis to CPB eggs and young larvae, A. chinensis is an efficient and potential predator.

Relationship between predation and maternal investment In Curly-Tailed Lizards

The Northern Curly-tailed Lizard (Leiocephalus carinatus armouri) is invasive in Florida, where it has establishedmultiple populations. Like most animals, the species faces various environmental pressures, including predation,which influences reproductive strategies. To test the hypothesis that a correlation exists between predation rates onfemales and offspring-resource allocation, we examined specimens from 11 populations in Florida, assuming that thosewith broken tails had encountered a potential predator. To quantify offspring-resource allocation, we used the numberof ovarian follicles in each female and the ratio of number to average size of the largest follicles. We predicted that thosetraits would differ between lizards with and without broken tails. We did not detect the expected correlation, suggestingthat predation pressure did not affect the number or size of follicles. Consistent with other lizard species, we did findthat larger body size was correlated with a greater number of follicles.

Snake-like bird hisses induce anti-predator responses in a frog

Some snakes emit hissing calls which are imitated by birds to deter potential predators. However, the effect of these snake and bird hisses on anuran risk recognition is not yet explored. Here we hypothesize that these hisses may advertise dangers to frogs and evoke their anti-predator responses. We used little torrent frogs (Amolops torrentis) as subjects and conducted sound playbacks to test their anti-predator behaviors. We found that little torrent frogs changed their calling behaviors during sympatric snake hiss playbacks, but showed no response to white noise and allopatric snake hiss playbacks. They did not respond to sympatric avian hiss that has low acoustic similarity with snake sounds. However, they decreased calling activity in response to sympatric avian hiss that has high acoustic similarity with snakes. As compared to other treatments, more individuals ceased calling during the playbacks of the highly similar bird hiss. These results suggest that frogs may recognize risks from snake and snake-like hissing calls and perform anti-predator responses.

The Cocoon of the Developing Emerald Jewel Wasp (Ampulex compressa) Resists Cannibalistic Predation of the Zombified Host

Introduction: To reproduce, the parasitoid emerald jewel wasp (Ampulex compressa) envenomates an American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and barricades it in a hole with an egg on the host’s leg. The larval wasp feeds externally before entering the host and consuming internal organs before forming a cocoon inside the host carcass. Methods: The vulnerability of jewel wasp larvae to predation by juvenile cockroaches was investigated, and data were recorded with time-lapse videography. Results: Cockroaches were found to be predators of parasitized hosts. When parasitized cockroaches were exposed to hungry cockroaches on days 0–8 of development, the developing larva was killed. Eggs were dislodged or consumed, larvae on the leg were eaten, and larvae inside the host were eaten along with the host. On day 9, 80% of the wasp larvae were killed and eaten along with the host. Conversely, on day 10, 90% of the larvae survived. On developmental day 11 or later, the wasp larva always survived, although the host carcass was consumed. Survival depended entirely on whether the cocoon had been completed. Conclusion: The results highlight the vulnerability of larvae to predation and suggest the cocoon defends from insect mandibles. This may explain the unusual feeding behavior of the jewel wasp larvae, which eat the host with remarkable speed, tapping into the host respiratory system in the process, and consuming vital organs early, in contrast to many other parasitoids. Results are discussed in relation to larval wasp behavior, evolution, and development, and potential predators are considered.

Recording potential predators of herpetofauna in southern Mexico using camera traps and realistic models

ABSTRACT Knowledge of biotic predator–prey interactions is essential for understanding the role of species in the food web; however, information on these interactions is scarce for most species. Our aim in this study was to gather information on the potential predators of two species of herpetofauna abundant in the rainforest they inhabit, the frog Craugastor loki and the snake Ninia sebae. For this, realistic models of the two species were placed, and monitored using camera traps, in 13 sites located in a forest fragment belonging to a private protected natural area in southern Veracruz in three seasons (dry, rainy and windy) in 2019. In addition, the temporality and seasonality of the events and some behaviours of the potential predators are described. The recorded events were classified into four categories: presence, interest, contact and aggression. For C. loki, 159 events of appearances of potential predators were identified (32 with interaction: 18 events of interest, 2 contact and 12 aggressions). The aggressions were carried out by the mammals Didelphis marsupialis and Peromyscus sp. In the case of N. sebae, 201 appearances of potential predators were identified (75 with interaction: 36 events of interest, 7 contact and 32 aggressions). The aggressions were carried out by 10 species (seven birds and three mammals). Bird predation events towards models of both species occurred during daytime while the attacks by mammals occurred at night. Agonistic behaviours included pecking, biting and urine marking, previously unknown. Events of each category were recorded every season. Our results indicate that C. loki and N. sebae may have more predators than were previously known, and suggest that these species can be an important food resource for different species of birds and mammals in the environments where they live.

Influence of Prey Consumption on the Predatory Potential and Biological Parameters of Exochomus nigripennis (Erichson) Against Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley and Icerya seychellarum (Westwood)

Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley and Icerya seychellarum (Westwood) are recent invasive sap-sucking insects in Egypt. Exochomus nigripennis (Erichson) being a viable option for conventional biological control. In the laboratory of the Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Centre, Egypt, the biological parameters and predatory potential of E. nigripennis were assessed using P. solenopsis and I. seychellarum as preys. Fourth instar E. nigripennis larvae was recorded the highest average total consumption of 455 individuals, with a feeding capacity of 43.10 when reared on P. solenopsis. While the third larval instar of E. nigripennis consumed the maximum number of I. Seychellarum 43.11 with a feeding capacity of 45.18 compared to other instars. E. nigripennis females had a lifespan of 30.9 ± 1.21 days, and consuming 3255 preys on P. solenopsis, while males had a feeding capacity of 2198.64. The immature stages of E. nigripennis varied significantly based on the prey species. Larvae developed faster on I. Seychellarum, while pupal periods were shortest on I. Seychellarum and longest on P. solenopsis. The shortest development time was on I. Seychellarum (22.8 days), while the longest was on P. solenopsis (30.37 days). The longevity and reproduction of E. nigripennis were significantly influenced by the preys they were reared on. Males and females fed on P. solenopsis exhibited longer survival and females had an extended oviposition period. The fecundity was highest when females were fed P. solenopsis supplemented with sugar solution. The study suggests that an integrated pest management program can effectively manage P. solenopsis and I. seychellarum, by utilizing E. nigripennis as a biological control agent, making it suitable for mass rearing in agricultural ecosystems.

Predator avoidance by mesopredatory benthic sharks in response to potential predators in a natural environment

Some benthic elasmobranch mesopredators utilise crypsis to avoid predation by higher trophic predators. While this ability has been documented in various elasmobranchs such as rays, cryptic behaviour has been scarcely documented in catsharks (family Scyliorhinidae). Freezing behaviour by leopard catsharks Poroderma pantherinum and shysharks Haploblepharus spp. in response to sightings of a smoothhound shark Mustelus mustelus and Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus was recorded during four separate baited remote underwater video (BRUV) deployments near Gansbaai, South Africa. Catsharks were seen actively swimming (foraging) most of the time (97.72%), and occasionally resting on the bottom, showing active buccal pumping. In the presence of a potential predator, they rapidly ceased all movement, including decreased gill movement, and immediately sank to the bottom. This response was initiated only when the predator swam into visual range of the catshark, and thus the freezing behaviour seems to be induced by visual cues only. The freezing behaviour is suggested to complement the colour pattern of the species in camouflage. This finding of predator avoidance behaviour in catsharks may inspire future research on predator recognition and avoidance to gain further insight into sharks’ predator–prey behaviour.

Improving Inference Within Freshwater Community Studies: Accounting for Variable Detection Rates of Amphibians and Fish.

Research into freshwater communities often aims to link patterns of species distribution in ponds with underlying biotic factors. However, errors with species detection (e.g. false negatives) may underestimate distribution and bias assessments of community structure. Occupancy models that account for imperfect detection offer a solution to this problem. Here, we used three methods (call/visual encounter surveys, dip-netting and newt trapping) to survey amphibians and fish (potential amphibian predators) at 100 ponds in an urbanised landscape in Hungary over one breeding season. We estimated species detection probabilities for amphibians (all life stages combined) and fish using occupancy models to gain insight into amphibian-fish relationships and other survey-specific variables. We detected nine amphibian and 20 fish species. There were relatively low but variable estimated probabilities of detection for amphibians (mean: 0.320, 95% Bayesian credible interval: 0.142-0.598), with three species having detection rates < 0.1. Probabilities of detection peaked in the middle of the breeding season and increased with survey effort. Detection probabilities of five species were negatively associated with the detection of fish at a pond, while there were positive relationships between detection and emergent vegetation cover. We found no substantial differences in detection rates among the three survey methods. The probability of detecting fish was much higher than for amphibians (0.588, 0.503-0.717) but was lower at ponds with high emergent vegetation where amphibian detection was higher. Our results underscore the importance of accounting for the imperfect detection of both response organisms and potentially interacting species in aquatic community studies. We recommend applying multi-species occupancy models to enable inference for both common and rare species at ponds in landscapes subjected to human disturbances.

Predator perception of aposematic and cryptic color morphs in two Oophaga species.

Animals that are toxic often advertise their unprofitability to potential predators through bright aposematic colors while cryptic ones blend in with their natural background to avoid predators. In the poison dart frogs, Oophaga pumilio and O. granulifera, some populations in Costa Rica and Panama display cryptic green and aposematic red color morphs. We herein used reflectance spectra from the dorsum of red and green morphs of these frogs to estimate their perception by the visual systems of three potential predators (birds, lizards, and crabs) against three natural backgrounds (leaves, trunks and leaf litter). Statistical analyses revealed no strong differences in color contrast against backgrounds between the two frog species. However, strong effects of frog morph, predator, background, and their interactions were observed. When viewed against diverse backgrounds, red frogs of both Oophaga species are more color conspicuous to birds and Anoline lizards than to crabs. A strong effect of species was observed on luminance contrast. Concerning the latter, green frogs particularly in O. granulifera appear more conspicuous than red frogs, while birds perceive higher brightness contrasts than lizards or crabs. Our results further support the importance of birds and lizards as Oophaga predators and provide a first quantitative comparison of conspicuousness between these two frog species.

Predatory potential of Coccinella undecimpunctata L. (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) on Aphis craccivora Koch. (Hemiptera, Aphididae) in Ladakh, India

Predatory potential of all instar larvae and adults of Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae), using Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera, Aphididae) was assessed in laboratory settings. The study, conducted with varying aphid densities in rearing jars, showed a significant increase in prey consumption as aphid density rose. Furthermore, prey consumption heightened with larval development, with 4th instars devouring more aphids compared to earlier instars. Female adults exhibited greater aphid consumption than males. Deploying both 4th instar larvae and adults could enhance pest suppression.

Dazzling damselfish: investigating motion dazzle as a defence strategy in humbug damselfish (Dascyllus aruanus)

Many animals possess high-contrast body patterns. When moving, these patterns may create confusing or conflicting visual cues that affect a predator’s ability to visually target or capture them, a phenomenon called motion dazzle. The dazzle patterns may generate different forms of optical illusion that can mislead observers about the shape, speed, trajectory and range of the animal. Moreover, it is possible that the disruptive visual effects of the high contrast body patterns can be enhanced when moving against a high contrast background. In this study, we used the humbug damselfish (Dascyllus aruanus) to model the apparent motion cues of its high contrast body stripes against high contrast background gratings of different widths and orientations, from the perspective of a predator. We found with higher frequency gratings, when the background is indiscriminable to a viewer, that the humbugs may rely on the confusing motion cues created by internal stripes. With lower frequency gratings, where the background is likely perceivable by a viewer, the humbugs can rely more on confusing motion cues induced by disruption of edges from both the background and body patterning. We also assessed whether humbugs altered their behaviour in response to different backgrounds. Humbugs remained closer and moved less overall in response to backgrounds with a spatial structure similar to their own striped body pattern, possibly to stay camouflaged against the background and thus avoid revealing themselves to potential predators. At backgrounds with higher frequency gratings, humbugs moved more which may represent a greater reliance on the internal contrast of the fish’s striped body pattern to generate motion dazzle. It is possible that the humbug stripes provide multiple protective strategies depending on the context and that the fish may alter their behaviour depending on the background to maximise their protection.

Multiple mechanisms of action of an extremely painful venom.

Evolutionary arms races between predator and prey can lead to extremely specific and effective defense mechanisms. Such defenses include venoms that deter predators by targeting nociceptive (pain-sensing) pathways. Through co-evolution, venom toxins can become extremely efficient modulators of their molecular targets. The venom of velvet ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) is notoriously painful. The intensity of a velvet ant sting has been described as "Explosive and long lasting, you sound insane as you scream. Hot oil from the deep fryer spilling over your entire hand." [1] The effectiveness of the velvet ant sting as a deterrent against potential predators has been shown across vertebrate orders, including mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds [2-4]. The venom's low toxicity suggests it has a targeted effect on nociceptive sensory mechanisms [5]. This leads to the hypothesis that velvet ant venom targets a conserved nociception mechanism, which we sought to uncover using Drosophila melanogaster as a model system. Drosophila larvae have peripheral sensory neurons that sense potentially damaging (noxious) stimuli such as high temperature, harsh mechanical touch, and noxious chemicals [6-9]. These polymodal nociceptors are called class IV multidendritic dendritic arborizing (cIV da) neurons, and they share many features with vertebrate nociceptors, including conserved sensory receptor channels [10,11]. We found that velvet ant venom strongly activated Drosophila nociceptors through heteromeric Pickpocket/Balboa (Ppk/Bba) ion channels. Furthermore, we found a single venom peptide (Do6a) that activated larval nociceptors at nanomolar concentrations through Ppk/Bba. Drosophila Ppk/Bba is homologous to mammalian Acid Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) [12]. However, the Do6a peptide did not produce behavioral signs of nociception in mice, which was instead triggered by other non-specific, less potent, peptides within the venom. This suggests that Do6a is an insect-specific venom component that potently activates insect nociceptors. Consistent with this, we showed that the velvet ant's defensive sting produced aversive behavior in a predatory praying mantis. Together, our results indicate that velvet ant venom evolved to target nociceptive systems of both vertebrates and invertebrates, but through different molecular mechanisms.