Potential Candidate Countries Research Articles

Navigating brain drain in the Western Balkans

This article analyses the European Commission’s attitude vis-à-vis labour migration and brain drain in the Western Balkans. It uses Croatia’s post–EU accession experience as a focal point. Grappling with elevated migration rates and a decline in natality, the Western Balkan countries are an interesting region in terms of demographic change. Examining how much attention the Commission pays to brain drain, the article notes an increase since 2019; yet this focus appears disproportionately limited considering the potential repercussions for economic growth and social welfare in the countries experiencing it. The Commission’s predominantly negative view of brain drain emphasises that it is the nations affected that are responsible for avoiding it, thereby confirming that it is caused by a skills mismatch. The article recommends integrating brain-drain prevention measures into the enlargement process, and encourages the Commission to improve its focus on the matter in its annual candidate and potential candidate country progress reports.

The Internal and External Factors: EU Contestation in Kosovo as a Peripheral Country

Kosovo, as a peripheral country in the context of the EU integration process, remains a potential candidate country with one of the most isolated populations in the Western Balkan region. The citizens of Kosovo are still unable to travel to EU coun­tries without a visa. Unfortunately, this process has been a condition with Kosovo­­Serbia dialogue, facilitated by the EU. This article assesses the influence of both processes, from the internal and external perspective, on the contestation of the EU’s actress among different actors in Kosovo – political elites, experts, and citizens. An analysis of existing relevant research, statistical data of national and interna­tional organizations, and above thirty media articles published between 2015 and 2023, shows a decline in Kosovo citizens’ trust in the EU from 89% in 2015 to 73% in 2022, and lately a substantial drop with only 42%.

Austria wobec integracji Bałkanów Zachodnich z Unią Europejską

The article indicates the following research problems: a) what is the significance of the Western Balkans for Austria and what was Austria’s position towards the plans for the EU enlargement to include the Balkan states, b) what was the public opinion’s attitude towards the above-mentioned plans and whether it had an impact on Austria’s actions at the EU level and c) were the attitudes presented consistent and uniform with respect to all candidate countries (or having the status of potential candidate countries)? The article assumes that this region is a priority for the Austrian government in terms of expanding European integration, and this approach remains unchanged and independent of internal and external factors. It was also hypothesized that Austria had an effective influence on the EU enlargement process.

Innovation Potential in the Western Balkans Relative to the European Union and Selected Neighbouring Countries

Although Western Balkan economies are still on the list of EU candidates or potential candidate countries, they do have some integration with EU economies. The EU is the leading trading partner of the Western Balkans and is one of the top destinations for the fl ow of people. The Western Balkan economies have been trying to address their populations’ ongoing emigration (the so-called “brain drain” phenomenon) by implementing targeted economic policies. Since one of the main contributors to economic growth is the ability to create innovation, it is crucial to building innovation potential. The main challenge for innovation policy is to provide a favourable environment for entrepreneurship and economic growth to create jobs. Thus, this paper aims to examine innovation potential – an innovation input – as it creates the conditions needed for innovation development. The results of analysing the data (on research and development spending, human resources, an environment friendly to innovation, and intellectual property rights) indicate that the Western Balkan countries are lagging behind the EU in many aspects of innovation potential, so they should still develop their strategies towards creating higher innovation potential. Thus, they will be able to have a higher level of innovation and, as a result, be more competitive in economic terms.

The Widening of European Union to Post Soviet Countries: Case Study of Bulgaria Acceptance and Ukraine Accession

To be a part of European Union must follow complex procedures. Before joining the institution, candidate countries must meet the Copenhagen Criteria. Then fulfill membership obligations contained in Acquis Communautaire. Once fulfilled, candidate countries can join the institution. However, in contrast to Bulgaria, Bulgaria was unable to fulfill it, but was given the easiness by providing CVM assistance. Bulgaria's acceptance was considered violate the EU agreement, making several members disappointed, especially UK. The peak of UK disappointment occurred in 2016, the UK stated its exit from the EU. Then in 2022, Ukraine in the midst of the Russian invasion applying to join. Without an in-depth administrative review, EU agreed to immediately grant candidate State status. Necessarily, a country which is applying EU, First should be on the waiting list with the status of a potential candidate countries and then second go to next status as a candidate countries, the last is recognize as a member of union. But Ukraine directly jump up to second status.

How Decisive Are the Copenhagen Criteria for EU Enlargement?

The article analyses the significance of the accession criteria in the context of recent EU enlargement negotiations, particularly during heightened geopolitical circumstances triggered by Russia’s aggression against Ukraine. The accelerated EU enlargement process, evidenced by the swift membership applications from Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia, and the even quicker decision to open accession negotiations for two of them, inspires an exploration of the binding elements, specifically the Copenhagen criteria, integral to the accession negotiation process. The study aims to examine the numerical development and changes in the conditions and criteria necessary for EU membership in ten candidate and potential candidate countries. The analysis focuses on fulfilling essential conditions, with emphasis on convergence, assessed using GDP per capita and growth rates, as well as the rule of law and democracy criteria measured through the Worldwide Governance Indicators.

Die Europäische Politische Gemeinschaft: multilaterale Koordination und differenzierte Integration in „Wider Europe“

The founding of the European Political Community (EPC) was motivated by both geopolitics and integration policy. This article examines this new format from the perspective of summit diplomacy and as a sub-case of (external) differentiated integration in the Wider Europe. The first meeting of 44 heads of state and government in October 2022 was a demonstration of (geo-)political unity against Russia, which is waging a war of aggression on Ukraine and destroying the European security order. Participating states might also find it useful in the future to exchange views on the reordering of Europe in this high-level political forum. In contrast, it is unclear what added value the EPC can develop with regard to preparing the current ten (potential) candidate countries for membership in the European Union (EU). Moreover, the EPC has revived the political debate on partial and gradual integration and partial or staged membership. Still missing is a strategic positioning of the EU on how to deal with the nexus of its reform, enlargement and geopolitical role.

European Political Community: A New Strategic Framework on the Horizon?

Although an ambitious initiative, the European Political Community (EPC) has left experts wondering as to what it will entail in practice. Its greatest advantage (and disadvantage) is that it can still become anything countries happen to agree on: an inter-governmental, non- institutionalized platform, where leaders can discuss strategic questions of the continent without visible commitments, written statements, or pressure to deliver results. When it comes to the enlargement of the Western Balkans and the Associated Trio, the EPC is unlikely to speed up the process or deliver tangible steps forward. Its added value for the (potential) candidate countries remains that they are also included in the debates concerning European questions of strategic importance.

EDUCATION POLICY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND CHALLENGES FOR CANDIDATE AND POTENTIAL CANDIDATE COUNTRIES

For any society that strives for growth and development, focus on quality education is of particular importance. With the adoption of the Lisbon strategy in 2000, the European Union (EU) started an upward trajectory towards the most competitive economy in the world. Cooperation in education has become an important instrument for mutual understanding and sharing of European values. This cooperation is supported with numerous relevant policy strategies, action plans, available statistical data, evaluation reports, road maps, thematic working groups and programmes, special network structures and idea exchange platforms within the EU. Key relevant strategies, plans and respective indicators are analyzed in this paper. Special attention is given to progress in candidate and potential candidate countries with regards to recommendations and goals of EU. It is concluded that more effort of the educational authorities is needed in all countries and one of the areas that needs to be further developed is evidence based policy making in education.

TURKIYE 'S INDUSTRIAL POLICY IN THE CONTEXT OF EU INTEGRATION: A SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE FOR GEORGIA

Eka Lekashvili
 Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University,
 Georgia
 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9781-7620
 Giorgi Kraveishvili,
 Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University,
 Georgia
 
 Research goal: Within the framework of the grant competition of the Faculty of Economics and Business at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, was developed the research project "Formation of industrial policy coordinated with the requirements of EU integration and the possibilities of its implementation in Georgia". The application was developed by the repres­en­ta­tives of the Department of Economic Policy. The actuality of the research problem is determined by the goals of implementation of the requirements of Georgia’s Association Agreement with the Eu­ro­pean Union. The purpose of the mentioned grant project is to analyze the possibilities of the for­ma­tion of the coordinated industrial policy with the requirements of the European Union and its imp­lementation in Georgia. To achieve this goal, it is important to analyze the successful and un­successful experiences of industrial policy development, coordination and implementation of EU member, candidate and potential candidate countries.
 The purpose of this scientific paper is to analyze the experience of development, coordination and implementation the industrial policy of Turkiye, as an associate member of the Eu­ro­pean Union in order to offer recommendations for the development of the industrial policy of Ge­orgia.
 
 Methodology/approach. The research is based on using the analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, chronological and comparison, case study methods, as well as expert assessments, theo­re­tical and applied studies of international organizations and scientific-economists. 
 Fou­nding. The paper discusses the strategic directions and reforms of the industrial policy of Tur­kiye, as an associated country of the European Union, that contributed to the country's economic str­engthening, development and entry into the European Union market. The experience of Turkiye 's ind­ustrial policy clearly shows that without the stimulating policy of national strategic industries, the country would not be able to participate in the competitive struggle in the EU market. By imp­lem­enting industry-supporting measures from the state, appropriate environmental conditions were cre­ated for the strengthening of domestic industry, which reflected the development of Turkiye, as a country.
 
 Originality/scientific innovation. The scientific novelty of the paper is analyzed and pro­ce­ssed valid information and scientific conclusions about the evolution of modern Turkish industrial po­licy, that is provided to the Georgian scientific community, policy makers and interested parties in a syst­ematized format with scientific objectivity and impartiality.
 Pra­c­tical value/consequences. Studying the successful experience of Turkiye, as the neighbor, the main trade-economic and strategic partner of Georgia, recommendations formed for creation and imp­lementation of industrial policy, that will support the process of integrating Georgia into the Eu­ropean Union, taking into account not only the sovereign, but also the regional context.
 
 Key words: Georgia, Turkiye, industrial policy.

Impact of Changes in Membership on Prices of a Unified Carbon Market: Case Study of the European Union Emissions Trading System

Using the event study methodology, the paper studies the effects of 22 key events in countries’ process of entering and exiting the European Union on returns of European Union Allowance (EUA) future prices in the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). The events include 17 entry events concerning the signing of relevant agreements, becoming a candidate or potential candidate country, the process of a negotiation and formally entering the EU, and five exit events including the process of Brexit and the suspension of Iceland. The results show that two entry events involving Albania and Ukraine, respectively, have a significant positive impact, and five entry events have a significant negative impact. Among the exit events, the announcement of the Brexit referendum results causes significant negative market reaction. Most events regarding small carbon emitters entering the EU lead to negative cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) of EUA prices, and a significant negative correlation between the countries’ annual average carbon emissions and CAR is found, while the change of national allocation plans does not affect the market reaction notably. In the process of establishing a unified carbon market, regulators should carry out appropriate policy arrangements of emission allowances allocation when new members join, in order to guide market expectations and enhance market stability.

How Can “Overall Progress and Development” Fail in Post-Conflict Societies? Securitization of the 2005–07 Stabilization and Association Agreement Negotiations in Republika Srpska

AbstractIn this article, we analyze how the Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA), which signalizes the overall (positive) progress and development of the potential candidate country of the post-Yugoslav space, is not straightforwardly translated as a benchmark for progress and development by the political elite. Drawing on securitization theory in order to understand the grammar of security, the wider discursive context, and the position of power and authority in RS during the analyzed period – and informed by the triangulation of content and discourse analysis – we show how the negotiations for the SAA were (mis)used in order to present both the “internal and external Other” as an existential threat for Republika Srpska. Our analysis shows that although the securitizing acts of the political elite from RS did not succeed in terms of the final outcome as the SAA was signed, certain security narratives, which are present in the contemporary sociopolitical landscape in BiH, have been constructed during this period and embedded into the wider discursive context and consolidated the position of power and authority of Milorad Dodik’s SNSD.

Social protection expenditure and redistribution in the Western Balkans

AbstractThis paper analyses social protection expenditure, its financing and its correlation with redistribution effects in the European Union (EU) candidate and potential candidate countries from the Western Balkans – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo and Serbia. Although social expenditure in the Western Balkans varies between countries in terms of the extent and functions, in general, it is growing and concentrates on the elderly population. The expenditure is strongly redistributive towards old age, but is less efficient in reducing extensive child and working-age poverty. From an intergenerational perspective, despite various recent improvements, it remains significantly unbalanced compared to the EU. The expenditure reflects the design of social rights that have been shaped by the legacy of socialism and war, local politics, and international organisations perhaps more than by the impact of economic resources and aging.

“Banal Balkanism?” – Rethinking Banal Nationalism and Regional Identity in the Post-Yugoslav Media Space

With the collapse of Yugoslavia, the supranational Yugoslav identity disappeared and was replaced by strengthened national identities. While some states of the former Yugoslavia have rediscovered their Europeanness, others have further strengthened their national identity. This paper answers the question of whether, three decades after the dissolution of Yugoslavia, a so-called “regional identity” still exists among the former Yugoslav states (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Kosovo). The authors set the initial hypothesis that belonging to a regional – in this case, Balkan – identity is more pronounced in the five candidate (Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia) and potential candidate countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), and Kosovo) for European Union (EU) membership than in Slovenia and Croatia, which have become EU Member States. Hence, this article will provide insight into “regional identity” and the banality of “Balkanism” reproduced in state media. By examining articles on national online news portals, we will examine the linkage between symbols and deixes in media and their role in creating national and regional identity. This analysis will confirm our initial hypothesis that the term “regional identity” is much more prominent in the media of the EU candidate countries, than in those states which are already members of the EU. By analysing everyday nationalism in the media – a gap that exists in academic research – we aim to open up a discussion that can lead to some solutions for overcoming the identity dilemmas of the region.

Are candidate countries converging with the EU in terms of the Copenhagen political criteria?

ABSTRACT The Copenhagen criteria for EU accession are the essential preconditions that candidate countries must satisfy to be deemed eligible for membership. In line with the strand of the literature that focuses on candidate countries’ convergence with the EU, the paper examines whether converge with the EU in terms of the Copenhagen political criteria can be established empirically for candidate and potential-candidate countries. Currently, the candidate country status is granted to Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey. Bosnia–Herzegovina and Kosovo are recognized by the EU as potential candidate countries. In addition to the candidate and potential candidate countries, we include in the convergence tests the six countries of the Eastern Partnership EU policy: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine. Using unit root tests, convergence is examined in terms of two indices drawn from the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project: the Liberal democracy and the Civil liberties indices. The findings reported herein, are not uniform and on the whole offer only scant evidence in favour of the convergence hypothesis. For some of the candidate and potential candidate countries convergence is established, while for others the results do not point to such a process.

Impacts of EU Grant-Assisted Projects on Institutional Capacity Building and Regional Development in Turkey: The Case of NUTS-2 Region TR82

Benefiting from European Union financial aid since 1963, Turkey has been receiving financial support as part of the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA II) (2014–2020) available to candidate and potential candidate countries. There were 3 687 EU grant-assisted projects implemented in Turkey under the responsibility of the Central Finance and Contracts Unit (CFCU) until 2016. The total amount of grants for these projects was 452 million € and 381 million € of this amount was EU grant contribution. The aim of this study is to explore the impact of the EU’s financial aid rendered through these projects on the institutional capacity building and regional development. The research area covered by the study is one particular region of the country, namely NUTS-2 region TR82. Primary data was collected through a questionnaire sent to subjects sampled from institutions/organizations, which are located in the region and carried out projects received through the CFCU before 2016. The chi-square (χ2) test was used to test the relationship between the legal status, location (city), project management experience of the institutions/organizations surveyed and the effects related to institutional capacity building and regional development. The results of the analyses are presented and interpreted. Together these analyses show that EU grant-assisted projects implemented through the CFCU contribute to institutional capacity building and regional development.

Central Banks Digital Currency: Detection of Optimal Countries for the Implementation of a CBDC and the Implication for Payment Industry Open Innovation

This article analyzes the current situation of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), which are digital currencies backed by a central bank. It introduces their current status, and how several countries and currency areas are considering their implementation, following in the footsteps of the Bahamas (which has already implemented them in its territory), China (which has already completed two pilot tests) and Uruguay (which has completed a pilot test). First, the sample of potential candidate countries for establishing a CBDC was selected. Second, the motives for implementing a CBDC were collected, and variables were assigned to these motives. Once the two previous steps had been completed, bivariate correlation statistical methods were applied (Pearson, Spearman and Kendall correlation), obtaining a sample of the countries with the highest correlation with the Bahamas, China, and Uruguay. The results obtained show that the Baltic Sea area (Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland) is configured within Europe as an optimal area for implementing a CBDC. In South America, Uruguay (already included in the comparison) and Brazil show very positive results. In the case of Asia, together with China, Malaysia also shows a high correlation with the three pioneer countries, and finally, on the African continent, South Africa is the country that stands out as the most optimal area for implementing a CBDC.

25 Years on the Way to Market Economy: Progress or Regression. The Case of Lithuania

After the collapse of central planned economy in Central and Eastern Europe, all affected countries experienced dramatic change towards the market economy. Seemingly, market economy could bring prosperity and plant “american dream” in Central and Eastern Europe. However, the way towards market economy of every country became not that easy as was thought primarily. Different models of transition period did not bring rapid results, however. “Shock Therapy” or gradualist approach was the central pillar of debates of economists and politicians. However, none of them could predict the exact consequences to the development of economies. The official approach to market economy was considered liberalization. The creation of extremely important preconditions for transitions was lacking. The most important market institutes such as social capital, human resources were not created timely which caused long social economic consequences to countries’ development. Lithuanian experience of transforming economy and integration to EU is analyzed in the paper. Lithuanian experience might be applicable to other potential candidate countries. In order to identify the level of development such indicators were selected: competitiveness index, rate of social exclusion and at risk of poverty, GDP growth rate, minimum wage and others.

Ethno-demographic situation and future of the Western Balkans

The Western Balkans are one of the most vulnerable parts of the European continent. This clearly defined territory of the EU has its own geopolitical explanation for its condition. The abandonment of the Western Balkans to neighboring countries is easy to explain. As some countries took steps to build democratic governance and a functioning market economy, the countries of the Western Balkans fought. At present, countries in the process of transposing EU law into their national law or the so-called "Candidate countries" are albania, serbia, montenegro and northern macedonia. Potential candidate countries are Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. The current situation of the countries in the region, in particular the status of Kosovo, the reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the national question of Albania and its idea of a "Greater Albania" are, subject to in-depth analysis. In general, the Western Balkans have a complex ethnic composition, which is a prerequisite for future conflicts

European Integration, Economy and Corruption in the Western Balkans

The European Union countries and institutions have constantly contributed to the European integration process of the Western Balkan countries. Albania, Serbia, Montenegro and the Republic of North Macedonia are official candidates for EU membership. Chapters and accession negotiations have been opened with Montenegro and Serbia, whereas Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina are potential candidate countries. Poverty, unemployment and corruption are probably the most common problems that Western Balkan citizens face. Corruption, in itself, does not lead to poverty, but it stimulate poverty through indirect channels by affecting economic, social, political and administrative conditions. Both, the enhancement of business climate for private investors, and a higher level of integration with the European Union will decrease unemployment and will boost economic growth. Authorities should follow concrete policies in order to encourage private sector investment, increase regional integration, and create new jobs. The future of the Western Balkans is in the European Union.