Potable Water Standards Research Articles

Off-grid photovoltaic-powered capacitive deionization for groundwater desalination in rural Africa

ABSTRACT In regions lacking centralized water supply and electricity grid connections, capacitive deionization (CDI) offers a promising approach with its modular and energy-efficient characteristics for low-salinity solutions. This research evaluates the feasibility of using a photovoltaic (PV)-powered CDI system as an off-grid, household-based water purification solution for groundwater desalination in rural Uganda. In this work, the CDI system was integrated with a PV system, comprising an ultrafiltration unit for pretreatment, a CDI stack for desalination, and a PV array for power supply. As evidenced by the performance analysis of the CDI stack in a single-pass mode, the system exhibited commendable desalination efficiency with a salt removal efficiency (>60%) and stable energy performance (0.110 ± 0.014 kWh/mol) observed under different influent conductivities (500–3,000 μS/cm). When applied to groundwater desalination, the CDI-based system successfully reduced the conductivity to meet Uganda's potable water standard (1,500 μS/cm), achieving a water recovery of 63%, and an energy consumption of less than 1.5 kWh/m3. Consequently, the CDI-based system effectively couples with the PV system to meet daily water needs solely through solar energy, demonstrating the practical implementation of innovative off-grid water desalination solutions in resource-constrained settings.

Hydrogeochemical Insights into the Sustainable Prospects of Groundwater Resources in an Alpine Irrigation Area on Tibetan Plateau

The Tibetan Plateau is the “Asia Water Tower” and is pivotal for Asia and the whole world. Groundwater is essential for sustainable development in its alpine regions, yet its chemical quality increasingly limits its usability. The present research examines the hydrochemical characteristics and origins of phreatic groundwater in alpine irrigation areas. The study probes the chemical signatures, quality, and regulatory mechanisms of phreatic groundwater in a representative alpine irrigation area of the Tibetan Plateau. The findings indicate that the phreatic groundwater maintains a slightly alkaline and fresh status, with pH values ranging from 7.07 to 8.06 and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) between 300.25 and 638.38 mg/L. The hydrochemical composition of phreatic groundwater is mainly HCO3-Ca type, with a minority of HCO3-Na·Ca types, closely mirroring the profile of river water. Nitrogen contaminants, including NO3−, NO2−, and NH4+, exhibit considerable concentration fluctuations within the phreatic aquifer. Approximately 9.09% of the sampled groundwaters exceed the NO2− threshold of 0.02 mg/L, and 28.57% surpass the NH4+ limit of 0.2 mg/L for potable water standards. All sampled groundwaters are below the permissible limit of NO3− (50 mg/L). Phreatic groundwater exhibits relatively good potability, as assessed by the entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI), with 95.24% of groundwaters having an EWQI value below 100. However, the potential health risks associated with elevated NO3− levels, rather than NO2− and NH4+, merit attention when such water is consumed by minors at certain sporadic sampling locations. Phreatic groundwater does not present sodium hazards or soil permeability damage, yet salinity hazards require attention. The hydrochemical makeup of phreatic groundwater is primarily dictated by rock–water interactions, such as silicate weathering and cation exchange reactions, with occasional influences from the dissolution of evaporites and carbonates, as well as reverse cation-exchange processes. While agricultural activities have not caused a notable rise in salinity, they are the main contributors to nitrogen pollution in the study area’s phreatic groundwater. Agricultural-derived nitrogen pollutants require vigilant monitoring to avert extensive deterioration of groundwater quality and to ensure the sustainable management of groundwater resources in alpine areas.

Integration of Full-Size Graywater Membrane-Aerated Biological Reactor with Reverse Osmosis System for Space-Based Wastewater Treatment.

To date, life support systems on the International Space Center (ISS) or those planned for upcoming moon/Mars missions have not included biological reactors for wastewater treatment, despite their ubiquitous use for the treatment of terrestrial wastewaters. However, the new focus on partial gravity habitats reduces the required complexity of treatment systems compared with those operating in micro-gravity, and the likely addition of large-volume wastewaters with surfactant loads (e.g., laundry and shower) makes the current ISS wastewater treatment system inappropriate due to the foaming potential from surfactants, increased consumable requirements due to the use of non-regenerative systems (e.g., mixed adsorbent beds), the complexity of the system, and sensitivity to failures from precipitation and/or biological fouling. Hybrid systems that combine simple biological reactors with desalination (e.g., Reverse Osmosis (RO)) could reduce system and consumable mass and complexity. Our objective was to evaluate a system composed of a membrane-aerated bioreactor (MABR) coupled to a low-pressure commercial RO system to process partial gravity habitat wastewater. The MABR was able to serve as the only wastewater collection tank (variable volume), receiving all wastewaters as they were produced. The MABR treated more than 20,750 L of graywater and was able to remove more than 90% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), producing an effluent with DOC < 14 mg/L and BOD < 12 mg/L and oxidizing >90% of the ammoniacal nitrogen into NOx-. A single RO membrane (260 g) was able to process >3000 L of MABR effluent and produced a RO permeate with DOC < 5 mg/L, TN < 2 mg/L, and TDS < 10 mg/L, which would essentially meet ISS potable water standards after disinfection. The system has an un-optimized mass and volume of 128.5 kg. Consumables include oxygen (~4 g/crew-day), RO membranes, and a prefilter (1.7 g/crew-day). For a one-year mission with four crew, the total system + consumable mass are ~141 kg, which would produce ~15,150 kg of treated water, resulting in a pay-back period of 13.4 days (3.35 days for a crew of four). Given that the MABR in this study operated for 500 days, while in previous studies, similar systems operated for more than 3 years, the total system costs would be exceedingly low. These results highlight the potential application of hybrid treatment systems for space habitats, which may also have a direct application to terrestrial applications where source-separated systems are employed.

Bacteriological Assessment of Lake Water samples in Raipur, Chhattisgarh: A Comprehensive Analysis of Water Samples

Abstract: The assessment of water quality is crucial, relying on both physico-chemical and microbiological standards. A comprehensive understanding of these parameters is essential to guide quality maintenance. Bacterial activity plays a pivotal role in decomposition, significantly influencing nutrient turnover and contributing to the biogeochemical cycle's foundation. Microbial diversity and dominance are integral to the biogeochemical cycle. However, bacterial and viral diseases transmitted through water, such as cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis, pose significant health risks during monsoon and summer seasons. Different regions adhere to various standards for water and potable water. Lakes play a vital role in determining groundwater quality, the primary source of potable water for rural populations, often consumed with minimal treatment. The quality of lake water is a matter of concern for public health, particularly due to the presence of indicator bacteria such as fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, fecal staphylococci, and Enterobacteriaceae. In this study, lake water samples were meticulously analyzed for various bacterial loads, including total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. These bacterial indicators not only serve as determinants of water quality but also raise serious concerns about the health of humans and animals relying on these water bodies. In summary, this research delves into the microbiological aspects of water quality in lakes, emphasizing the significance of bacterial indicators and their potential impact on public health. The findings contribute valuable insights for developing strategies to safeguard water quality and mitigate health risks associated with waterborne diseases.

Application of bioassays and physicochemical analysis for assessing groundwater quality of selected tube wells in a CKDu impacted area

Groundwater from tube and dug wells are primarily used for drinking purposes by rural communities inhabiting Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) impacted areas in Sri Lanka. Groundwater safety assessment using targeted physicochemical analysis alone is not adequate to capture interactive effects of chemical mixtures in the groundwater. This study explored for the first time combined use of physicochemical analysis and bioassays with root meristems of Allium cepa and erythrocytes of Cyprinus carpio to assess groundwater quality of selected tube wells in Medawachchiya (a CKDu impacted area), Sri Lanka covering pre-monsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon seasons. The pH, turbidity, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, fluoride, chloride, nitrate and nitrite levels in the groundwater complied with Sri Lanka standards for potable drinking water in all seasons. Yet, alkalinity and total hardness levels in the groundwater exceeded national drinking water standards (nearly up to two folds) mostly in the monsoon season. Bioassays revealed genotoxic effects of the groundwater of some tube wells in pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons. Observed genotoxicity may be associated with synergistic effects of contaminants including undetected and unknown chemicals in the groundwater depending on the season. The results support the use of bioassays as complementary tools for evaluating groundwater quality of CKDu hotspots considering consumer safety.

Geochemical processes, salinity sources and utility characterization of groundwater in a semi-arid region of Iraq through geostatistical and isotopic techniques.

Identifying factors contributing to water salinity is paramount in efficiently managing limited water resources in arid environments. The primary objective of this study is to enhance understanding regarding the hydrochemistry, source, and mechanism of water salinity, as well as to assess the suitability of water for various uses in southern Iraq. The groundwater samples were collected from water wells and springs and analyzed for major cations and anions along with stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) to accomplish the objective. The analysis of major ion chemistry, hydrochemical techniques, principal component analysis (PCA), and isotope signatures were adopted to determine the primary factors contributing to water mineralization. The study inferred that evaporation and geological processes encompassing water-rock interactions, such as dissolution precipitation and ion exchange, were key processes. The stable isotope analysis revealed that the water originated from meteoric sources and underwent significant evaporation during or before infiltration. The utility assessment of water samples indicates that most samples are not appropriate for consumption and are significantly below the established standards for potable water. In contrast, a significant portion of the groundwater samples were found to meet the criteria for irrigation suitability by adopting Wilcox and the US Salinity Laboratory criteria. The groundwater could be considered for irrigation with proper salinity control management. Overall, this study has significantly improved the understanding of the hydrogeochemical regimes and acts as a first step toward the sustainable utilization of water resources.

Preliminary Analysis of Air Conditioner Condensate Water Generation in Buttala, Monaragala, Sri Lanka

In tropical countries like Sri Lanka, a significant amount of air-conditioner (A/C) condensate water is often discharged into the environment without being utilized. Although considerable number of reports available for South and East Asia, research related to AC condensate in Sri Lanka is scanty. The aim of this research was to analyse the quality and quantity of the discharged condensed water after understanding the potential environmental concerns. Monaragala district was chosen for this study due to its dry climate and the widespread use of air conditioners in most shops, resulting in a substantial discharge of condensed water into the environment. Water samples were taken from 31 institutions within Buttala area. These samples were collected in triplicate, and the mean value was used for analysis. When considering all parameter values, pH, TDS, Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity, and color showed good compliance with the SLS 614:2013 and NEA standards. (Mean values were 7.317, 28.37 ppm, 1.47 NTU, 54.21 µS, 10.74 and standard deviation values&#x0D; were 0.1138, 13.46, 0.1961, 26.01, 5.047 respectively). Therefore, the condensed water from air conditioners is unlikely to have environmental impacts and can be safely used for irrigation and agricultural purposes. In the case of potable water, all the parameters analyzed in this research were well-fitted with the potable water standards. However, if it is intended for drinking purposes, further analysis for heavy metal contamination is required. By considering 11 number of A/C units, an amount of condensed water 0.97L/h/ton is released to the environment; equivalent to approximately&#x0D; 7.76 L/ton per day. The values were taken in duplicates. The volume of condensate water, while considerable, doesn’t need to be released into the environment without purpose. Instead, this water can be efficiently utilized for various applications, including garden irrigation, toilet flushing, cooling applications, cleaning, fire suppression, and construction. This suggestion is imperative, not only for the Buttala area but for the entire country of Sri Lanka, as this approach can yield several positive effects on both the environment and the economy.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Air conditioners, Condensed water, Quality analysis, Quantity analysis

Geochemical modeling and hydrochemical analysis for water quality determination around mine drainage areas.

Water sources in mining areas do not retain their natural quality due to the influence of mine drainage. Water quality test was through hydrochemical analysis, speciation modeling, and saturation indices. Water samples were analyzed for pH, conductivity, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, chlorite, sodium, magnesium, calcium, turbidity, total hardness, lead, zinc, iron, copper, cadmium, manganese, nickel, and chromium. Mean values of turbidity (0.13 mg/L), lead (0.01 mg/L), and cadmium (6.40 mg/L) exceeded their permissible values for potable water. Multivariate statistical analysis shows geogenic and anthropogenic sources of chemical species. Chemical speciation shows that the cations exist mostly in their soluble and mobile forms as free ions. Water quality index of 35-45.5 shows good water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses. The values of 63.8-68.8 and 103-121 reflect suitable water for industrial and irrigation uses. The research is integrated and credible in predicting groundwater pollutants to solve water pollution problems. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The mean value of turbidity, Pb, and Cd exceeded the WHO/NSDWQ standards for potable water. Correlation and principal component analyses show that the chemical species are from both geogenic and anthropogenic sources. Chemical speciation shows that the cations exist in their soluble and mobile forms as free ions except Cr. Saturation indices show that the minerals anhydrite, anglesite, vivianite, langite, larnakite, melanterite, and mirabilite are undersaturated in the water sources. Water quality index shows that the water is more suitable for irrigation than drinking and industrial uses.

Evaluation of the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of groundwater in the Nihit rural commune of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas

Our study evaluated the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of water wells and boreholes in the rural commune of Nihit in the Moroccan Anti Atlas. In this study, we assessed the physico-chemical qualities of the water such as pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity, nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, mineral elements, and heavy metals. We also studied the bacteriological quality of the water in terms of microbial germs represented by Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Intestinal Enterococci, and sulfito-reducing Clostridium.Apart from two points located upstream of the Douars, nitrate concentrations range from 60 to 290 mg.L-1, well above the permissible value according to the World Health Organization (50 mg.L-1). At some points, values reach concentrations of 4.1.103 CFU/100 mL, 1.9.102 CFU/100 mL, 60 CFU/100 mL, 1.8.103 CFU/100 mL, and 90 CFU/100 mL, respectively for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia, intestinal enterococci and sulfito-reducing Clostridium. The presence of Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliforms, and E. coli in the water tested is an indicator of contamination by human or animal fecal matter, which may come from conventional septic tanks, untreated wastewater discharges, animal manure leaching, or runoff. On the other hand, the values of the other physicochemical parameters tested remain compliant with potable water standards.

Preparation of washable and salt-resistant composites for continues solar-driven evaporation and seawater desalination based on ES nonwovens

Solar-powered interfacial evaporation is a novel and eco-friendly technology for producing fresh water from seawater. However, current interfacial evaporators are expensive to manufacture, have poor tolerance for environmental conditions, and struggle to achieve stable evaporation in highly saline solutions while also preventing salt accumulation. Therefore, the fabrication of user-friendly, long-lasting, and salt-resistant interfacial evaporators remains a significant challenge. In this study, an efficient and durable interfacial evaporator was fabricated by embedding hydroxyl dobby carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and polydopamine (PDA) onto ES nonwoven fabrics. The prepared PDA-CNT-ES (PCES) composite-evaporator exhibited excellent light absorption and hydrophilic properties, which can be attributed to the light absorption capabilities of carbon nanotubes and the hydrophilicity of PDA. The combination of CNTs and PDA coatings produced a synergistic effect, leading to an efficient photothermal performance of the evaporator surface, which resulted in a significant evaporation rate of 1.29 kg⋅m−2⋅h−1 and a solar thermal efficiency of 90.77% under 1.0 solar irradiation (1 kW⋅m−2). The PCES composites, in particular, demonstrated effective purification under various simulated seawater conditions, and the desalinated water produced met the standards for potable water. The composites exhibited remarkable durability and stability over 10 desalination cycles. These results provide new insights for applying these findings in seawater desalination and wastewater treatment.

Physicochemical and Microbiological Assessment of Utaewa Estuary Water

Most communities in the oil rich Niger Delta find it difficult to access to potable water due to constant pollution of their natural water sources. The sole aim of this study was to examine the microbiological and physicochemical qualities of the Estuary water at Utaewa to ascertain its suitability for potable use. Standard culture dependent techniques as well as metagenomics approach using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) on Illumina Miseq platform was used to determine the microbiological characteristics while standard analytical procedures were employed to ascertain the physicochemical properties of Utaewa in Imo River. The average microbial counts ranged as follows: Total Heterotrophic Bacteria; 2.17±0.08x106 to 2.23±0.08x106 cfu/ml, Hydrocarbon Utilizing Bacteria; 1.03±0.06x105 to 1.39±0.08x105 cfu/ml, Total Heterotrophic Fungi; 1.23±0.13x105 to 1.64±0.09x105 cfu/ml, Hydrocarbon Utilizing Fungi; 7.9±0.21x103 to 8.6±1.00x103 cfu/ml. Bacterial isolates belonging to the genera Escherichia, Citrobacter, Bacillus, Salmonella, Shigella, Proteus, Flavobacterium, Vibrio, Micrococcus and Pseudomonas. were isolated and identified. The fungal isolates belonged to the genera Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Saccharomyces and Candida. On the other hand, Unknown (50.16%), Acinetobacter (8.34%), Ignatzschineria (4.73%), Planctomyces (3.28%), Anaerospora (3.27%), RS62 (2.73%), Methylophaga (1.64%), Wohlfahrtiimonas (1.31%), Myroides (1.23%) and Candidatus (0.95%) were captured by metagenomics analysis at the generic level. All the physicochemical parameters conformed to WHO and NIS standards for potable water except for Turbidity and Magnesium. Cultural methods used in this study were able to identify many potential water borne pathogens, metagenomics captured more microbial groups and give a better insight to bacterial composition and diversity. The presence of theses pathogenic bacteria underlies poor water quality and can pose public health threat to man and aquatic fauna. There is need to adhere to good hygienic practices and minimize the direct discharge of waste without proper treatment.

The Health Security of Drinking Water in Sacred City: the Hydraulic and Zam Zam Projects in Mecca as Cases

As the first Islamic sacred city, the health security of drinking water in Mecca has been highly concerned since ancient time. As a unique potable water resource of Mecca, the health security of Bir Zam Zam has aroused the high attention of Muslims and related countries all over the world, which is closely related to the special status generated by the origin of the role in the sa’y ceremony of the hajj. Because of this, Zam Zam water is widely regarded as ‘sacred water’ and appears the phenomenon of religious alienation in its health function. In 2013, Saudi Arabia launched a new Bir Zam Zam project to improve water quality by more scientific and technological means. Relevant tests found that its water quality could meet the potable water standards of the World Health Organisation and the American Public Health Association, but there were also voices of doubt from abroad, and Saudi Arabia also responded to this. With the advent of the post-pandemic era and the resumption of the hajj for Muslims outside Saudi Arabia in 2022, the consumption of Bir Zam Zam by pilgrims and Muslims will rise to high levels, inevitably leading to an upward risk to international health security.

Assessment of Rainwater Quality Regarding its Use in The Roztocze National Park (Poland)—Case Study

The aim of this study was to determine the quality of rainwater and the possibility of using it for various purposes in the Roztocze National Park (RNP), Poland. This study was carried out in 2021–2022. Samples of rainwater that drained from the roofs of farm buildings in the RNP were tested for their organoleptic, physicochemical and microbiological qualities. The organoleptic tests were run to evaluate the water for a foreign odour and the threshold odour number. The physical and chemical tests included turbidity; colour; pH; conductivity; concentrations of ammonium ions, nitrates, nitrites, manganese, iron and chlorides; and general hardness. The microbiological tests included total microbial counts at 36 °C and 22 °C, coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, intestinal enterococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The rainwater quality results were compared with the quality parameters of surface water collected from the River Świerszcz, as well as with the Polish drinking water standards. The findings indicated that rainwater collected in the RNP had good organoleptic, physicochemical and microbiological properties, which, in some cases, complied with the standards for potable water. Exceedances of the permissible limits, mainly for ammonium ions and microbiological indicators, were periodically observed in the tested rainwater. This was probably due to contamination of roof surfaces with bird droppings. However, these exceedances did not exclude the use of the rainwater for economic purposes, e.g., flushing toilets, washing vehicles or watering plants, which may significantly reduce the abstraction of high-quality groundwater. The rainwater that is planned to be used as drinking water for the Polish konik horses living in the park will have to be pre-treated via filtration and disinfection processes (e.g., with a UV lamp).

Ecological and health risk assessment of radionuclides and heavy metals of surface and ground water of Ishiagu–Ezillo quarry sites of Ebonyi, Southeast Nigeria

Exposure to heavy metals and natural radionuclides via water sources disposes mankind to deterioration of health. Radionuclides (238U, 232Th, 40K) and heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cd, As) in surface and borehole waters close to granite quarry sites and the extent of metal contamination for evaluating health risk for individual populations were studied. Mean values of 238U, 232Th, and 40K in surface water (11.56, 8.84 and 35.66 Bq/l) and borehole water (2.68, 10.81 and 18.66 Bq/l) were determined. Total estimated annual effective doses for ingestion of radionuclides via surface and borehole water samples were: children (1.139; 1.058 mSv/y) and adults (2.377; 2.231 mSv/y), adults are more vulnerable to radiation risk. Average heavy metals in both water sources are in order, As >Cr > Pb> Cd. Radionuclides and heavy metals exceeded WHO standards for potable water. Contamination factor, pollution load index, geo-accumulation index, ecological risk and potential ecological risk indices (PERI) showed that surface water contamination is higher than the borehole water within the study areas. Multivariate statistical analysis accounted for 86.30% of the total variance indicating strong correlation between As, Cr, Pb and PERI which was traced to geogenic and anthropogenic sources of the metals that contributed to high potential ecological risk in surface water. Hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) (non-carcinogenic) and carcinogenic risk assessment values were within USEPA HQ and HI ≤ 1 and 1 × 10−6 – 1 × 10−4 which portrays little or no significant health effect from the use of studied water sources. Therefore, surface and borehole water within 5 km radius from granite quarry locations should be pretreated before use to avoid long-term effect of pollutants accumulation.

Use of Water in Animal Production, Slaughter, and Processing

Water is an essential part of food animal processing, and current processing practices use large volumes of water. Due to climate change, the food industry's access to clean and inexpensive water is increasingly a challenge. The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) seeks evaluation by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Food (NACMCF) to facilitate the safe reuse of sources of water in order to reduce water consumption. There should be more collaborations among stakeholders (e.g., industry, academia, government) to collect missing information on water usage and opportunities for reuse. A complete understanding of energy use and plant infrastructure limitations is necessary to effectively understand all opportunities for water conservation and recycling. Characterization of microbial and chemical contaminants in water is a very large topic that requires extensive work. There are quality standards for potable water but not for the recycled water from different processing states, and different water treatment systems. A uniform standard for, and federal regulation of, the quality of reused/recycled water in FSIS-regulated facilities is needed. Standard water analysis methods are available, well-developed, and reliable. Initial monitoring of alternatively sourced water should be extensive, while ongoing performance monitoring should be in real-time and focus on measuring indicators (refer to Glossary). Water for non-food contact uses will require monitoring of fewer parameters. Some water conservation strategies have been published for fish processing establishments; however, economic and other incentives to incorporate conservation practices or recycling technologies do not exist. Companies should develop emergency programs to manage natural disasters, such as flooding.

A Comparative Study of the Physiochemical and Bacteriological Parameters of Potable Water from Different Sources in Kitui County, Kenya

Developing nations are experiencing an ever-increasing demand for safe water due to climate change and the ever-increasing human population. Various strategies including construction of shallow wells, boreholes and sand dams along the river are done to make water available to various households. However, availability of water sources near are faced with challenges of pollution from a variety of sources. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of selected bacteriological and physico-chemical parameters in three potable water sources namely Kiembeni borehole, Mwitasyano River and Kalundu Dam in Kitui County. The quality of this water was compared to the standards for potable water prescribed by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS). Representative sampling was conducted during the wet season (October 2019) and the dry season (August 2020) in the three sampling sites. The samples were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters: pH, color, turbidity, alkalinity, conductivity, iron, calcium, magnesium, hardness, chloride, fluoride, sulphates, ammonia, total dissolved solids and bacteriological parameters: total and fecal coliform. The analysis was performed at the Kenya Water Institute (KEWI) laboratory using standard procedures. The values obtained for the different water sources in the wet season and dry season were pooled and mean values calculated to determine the overall quality of drinking water. The results indicated that all the water sources had fecal coliform levels unsuitable for drinking water. Most of the values obtained for pH, color, alkalinity, conductivity, calcium, fluoride and sulphates in all sources of water were within the recommended potable water standards by KEBS. However, turbidity, iron and total coliform obtained values for borehole water samples were not within the recommended KEBS standards. The river and dam water samples were within the recommended standards for magnesium, hardness, chloride, ammonia and total dissolved solids. Although results indicate that some of the physico-chemical parameters were in conformance with the recommended standards, the overall bacteriological parameters render the water unsuitable for drinking. Thus, public health intervention programmes should be focused on addressing various sources of water pollution including regular disinfection of water. Keywords: Water quality, Physico-chemical, Kitui County, Assessment DOI: 10.7176/JEES/12-11-05 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

Scientific substantiation of conceptual approaches to the development of a regulatory document on the quality of drinking water under condition of martial law

The purpose of the research was to scientifically substantiate the conceptual approaches to the development of normative document on drinking water quality in order to prevent morbidity and mortality in martial law during armed aggression in Ukraine and other emergencies. &#x0D; Materials and methods: descriptive, sanitary-chemical, normative-search, comparative analysis, expert assessments have been used. The paper analyzes the results of observations of efficiency and monitoring of water quality from water supply stations of Ukraine before and after the war, and compare assessment of the main provisions of regulations on drinking water quality of some countries, including those used in emergencies. &#x0D; Results. The research established that in wartime centralized drinking water supply companies are burdened by problems due to unguaranteed quality of source water, lack of stable conditions for the technological process of water treatment, operation or destruction of water treatment plants and networks etc. Current standards in Ukraine( DSanPiN 2.2.4-171-10 "Hygienic requirements for drinking water intended for human consumption") during martial law require significant changes: supplementation of safety and quality indicators due to the new risks of drinking water pollution; exclusion of certain safety and quality indicators at the expense of non-priority ones; establishment of temporary hygienic standards for tap water and water dispensing points and the procedure for their use; adjusting the frequency of production control of potable water; implementation preventive measures to reduce morbidity and mortality. Today the project of “DSanPiN "Safety indicators and some particular indicators of potable water quality during martial law and emergencies of another nature" (hereinafter - DSanPiN) has been scientifically substantiated and developed. According to the draft of this document, the quality of drinking water in terms of epidemic and radiation safety must meet the requirements of DSanPiN 2.2.4-171; in terms of physicochemical - see requirements of DSanPiN. The requirements of DSanPiN after their state registration will be applied during martial law and during emergencies of other nature in a particular area for a specified period as short as possible by the relevant regional or local commission for technogeneous environmental safety and emergencies.&#x0D; Conclusions. It is established that during the military emergency situation in Ukraine the current DSanPiN 2.2.4-171-10 "Hygienic requirements for potable water intended for human consumption" require significant changes in order to: supplement safety indicators due to the emergence of new risks of drinking water pollution; exclude certain indicators of safety and quality due to non-priority; establish temporary hygienic standards for potable tap water and bottling points in personal containers of consumers and the procedure for their use; adjust the frequency of production control of potable water quality; implement other preventive measures to reduce morbidity and mortality.. Nowadays the draft DSanPiN "Safety indicators and some indicators of potable water quality in martial law and emergencies of other nature" is scientifically substantiated and developed, and it was submitted to the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine for state registration.

Co-Remediation of Acid Mine Drainage and Industrial Effluent Using Passive Permeable Reactive Barrier Pre-Treatment and Active Co-Bioremediation

This study evaluated the co-remediation performance of an active–passive process comprised of passive permeable reactive barrier acid mine drainage (AMD) pre-treatment and active anaerobic digestion treatment of AMD with effluent as a carbon source. The bioreactor was operated for 24 consecutive days with peak chemical oxygen demand (COD) and sulphate loading rates of 6.6 kg COD/m3/day and 0.89 kg SO42−/m3/day, respectively. The AMD pre-treatment was capable of removing 99%, 94% and 42% of iron (Fe), potassium (K), and aluminium (Al) concentrations, respectively. The biological treatment process was capable of removing 89.7% and 99% of COD and sulphate concentrations, respectively. The treated wastewater copper (Cu), sulphate (SO42−), and pH were within the effluent discharge limits and the potable water standards of South Africa. Fe, Al, manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) concentrations in the treated wastewater were marginally higher than the discharge and potable water limit with all concentrations exceeding the limit by less than 0.65 mg/L. The remediation performance of the process was found to be effective with limited operational inputs, which can enable low cost co-remediation.

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR DRINKING AND SANITATION PURPOSES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS, RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

Water quality assessment research will go on despite the numerous research previously carried out because water quality is not constant and as exploration activities are being carried out around the world, the quality of water depreciates. The school environment represents an important setting and needs to be monitored as the students’ social habits and behaviors are learned at school. Every child has the right to be in a school that offers safe drinking water, healthy sanitation and hygiene education. There is therefore dire need to monitor drinking water quality provided by the school, for potability and sanitation regularly. A total of 40 drinking water samples were collected from 40 different secondary schools (27 day schools and 13 boarding schools), randomly selected within the Port Harcourt Metropolis, and analyzed using standard analytical techniques. To achieve the aim of this research work, an already delineated map of Port Harcourt Metropolis, into 13 zones, by the Survey Department was used. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters were determined to ascertain how safe the water is for direct consumption. Descriptive statistical analysis using Microsoft Excel 2013 Version was adopted to determine parameter concentration trends across the study area. Some of the results obtained are at variance with the Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) and World Health Organisation (WHO) standards for potable water. The pH values ranged from 3.78 – 7.72 with a mean value of 5.75. About 40% of the samples met WHO and SON minimum acceptable limit of 6.5 – 8.5. The reported pH range for 60% of the water samples showed that the drinking water in some secondary schools is acidic and well below the stipulated range of 6.5 – 8.5 for drinking purposes. The implication is that drinking water in most secondary schools in Port Harcourt Metropolis is acidic. All other physico-chemical parameters fall within WHO and SON standard for drinking water except for Magnesium. 67% of the samples had elevated values that ranged from 0.27 – 3.38mg/l, above (up to 12 times) the allowable limit stipulated by WHO and SON. All heavy metals present in the water samples were within the WHO and SON limits, making the water virtually free from dangers to the human body posed by the presence of heavy metals in water. The water samples were also free from total coliform bacteria and faecal coliform bacteria. However, the results showed the presence of total heterotrophic bacteria to a harmful quantity (well above 10cfu/ml which is the allowable limit by SON) in 30% of the water samples. This suggests that drinking water in 30% of the schools is not fit for human consumption. The study recommends installation of treatment plants in every day and boarding secondary schools. This is to facilitate the treatment of drinking water, for acidity and bacteria, before consumption by the students. The acidity can also be treated by introducing baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) in measured amounts into the water before drinking, while the bacteria can be removed by chlorination. Regular and periodic monitoring of the water quality in secondary schools, by designated authorities, is also urgently recommended.

Variation of rain water quality with storage time for different coloured storage containers

It is very important to evaluate the quality of rain water collected and stored in cisterns and storage tanks. In this study, rainwater quality analysis was carried out on samples collected from an experimental set -up at the School of Engineering and Engineering Technology of the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. The physio-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of rainwater collected and stored using four different coloured containers under outdoor and indoor conditions were analyzed and the results compared with World Health Organization (WHO) standard for potable water. The results of the physio-chemical analysis revealed that the colour, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), phosphate, sulphate, iron and copper of all the rainwater samples fell within WHO acceptable standards for potable water. The pH of the harvested rainwater of the samples ranged from 5.34 – 6.73 mg/l for the indoor stored rainwater samples and 5.28 – 6.59 mg/l for the outdoor stored samples. The pH of the water samples did not fall with WHO permissible limit of 6.5 to 8.5. The Nitrate content of the water samples also did not fall within WHO permissible limit. Similarly, the total coliform count did not conform to WHO standard for potable water. Based on the results obtained from this study, it is recommended that harvested rainwater be treated to kill contaminating microorganisms and to reduce the health risks associated with its consumption.