Postharvest Quality Of Table Grapes Research Articles

Quality attributes and biochemical changes in white and colored table grapes as influenced by harvest maturity and ambient postharvest storage

Maturity is a key factor that determines fruit quality and shelflife. Determination of the correct harvest stage is always challenging in non-climacteric fruits, and more complex with grapes because of varietal and climatic variations. Thus, the current study was conducted to determine the effect of different maturity levels on berry composition and postharvest quality of table grapes. Three grape cultivars (‘Sultanina-C’, ‘Flame Seedless’ and ‘NARC Black’) were harvested at early (M1) mid (M2) and late (M3) maturity stages, based on berry color development. Harvested fruits were kept at ambient conditions (25°C with 60-65% Relative Humidity) for physico-chemical and antioxidant evaluation until onset of decay. Results indicated that, regardless of storage duration, the fruit harvested at the second (M2) or third (M3) maturity stages exhibited significantly lower weight loss and berry shattering with better skin color (L*, a*, b*). Titratable acidity (TA) was significantly lower while total soluble solids (TSS), pH and TSS:TA ratio were significantly higher at M3. No significant difference in ethylene production was recorded in maturity stages but a significant linear increase was observed during ambient storage whereas, respiration rate was found to be higher in fruit harvest at early stage of maturity (M1) that increased gradually during ambient storage and start decreasing at the end of shelf life. Total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant scavenging activity (ASA), and activities of antioxidative enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) significantly decreased with increasing maturity level. During ambient storage for 4 days, ASA and activity of SOD, CAT and PPO increased initially and then decreased, while TPC and POX activity decreased linearly. ‘NARC Black’ grapes had higher TPC, ASA, anthocyanins, SOD and POX than the other cultivars. Conclusively, grapes harvested at M3 exhibited better fruit physico-chemical quality attributes with least antioxidative characters which was higher at M1 irrespective to white or colored table grapes at ambient storage.

Preharvest fungicide treatments reduce the effective SO2 threshold of postharvest fumigation to control pathogens and maintain quality of “red globe” (Vitis vinifera) grapes

AbstractSulfur dioxide (SO2) fumigation has been widely used to control pathogens and maintain the postharvest quality of table grapes. However, the effective dosage of SO2 treatment is close to causing bleaching damage on fruits. Further, the SO2 potential residue is a risk to human health. In this study, the dominant pathogens in “red globe” grapes during cold storage (0 and 10°C) were identified as Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria alternata, and Penicillium expansum, while Aspergillus niger was dominant pathogen when the grapes were stored at room temperature (25°C). The isolated dominant pathogens were effectively suppressed by SO2 ranging from 500 μl L−1 to 800 μl L−1, but bleaching spots were observed in grapes when SO2 was applied at 800 μl L−1. To reduce the SO2 residue, the fungicides dimethomorph and thiophanate‐methyl were respectively sprayed to control the epiphytic pathogens during the development of grape berries. In addition, the reduced microbial population contributed by fungicide treatments remitted the original density of postharvest microbial growth. The postharvest automated intermittent SO2 fumigation at 500 μl L−1 was subsequently integrated to control the microbial activities. In addition, SO2 maintained the soluble solid content and titratable acid content, which were 22% and 75% higher than the control (p < .05) on 120 days of storage. The inhibition percentage against dominant fungal pathogens by preharvest fungicides spray was approximately 30%, while the postharvest intermittent SO2 fumigation contributed about 50%. We investigated the suppression role of preharvest and postharvest combined treatment for the grapes, which was concluded as a promising application to reduce decay and extend the shelf life of “red globe” grapes.

Effect of microwave mild heat treatment on postharvest quality of table grapes

Table grapes are characterized by high susceptibility to mold development during post-harvest, mostly due to Botrytis cinerea. Microwave application on ready-to-eat product can represent an alternative to antifungal treatment. With the aim of identifying the maximum energy that can be applied on grape without detrimental effects a Central Composite Design was developed testing the application of 10 combinations of treatment time (seconds) and microwave power (Watt). As a result, energies above 8000 kJ negatively affected the sensorial quality of fresh product, both in the presence and absence of B. cinerea inoculum (106 log CFU g-1). The physico-chemical parameters did not show significant differences, but two time/power combinations improved sensory quality of table grape, being selected for the subsequent packaging trial: 14 s/100 W and 80 s/100 W. Treatments were applied before or after packaging in polypropylene bags. At the end of storage period, 100 W applied for 80 seconds before packaging led to a better external appearance of the product than the other treatments, maintaining an intermediate level of mesophilic bacterial load and no significant differences in terms of nutritional quality. 80 seconds at 100 Watt combined with packaging can represent a valuable starting point for further experiments.

Postharvest Potential of Cold-hardy Table Grapes

The University of Minnesota Grape Breeding Program has developed cold-hardy wine grape cultivars that have facilitated the establishment of an economically important grape industry for the Midwest region. In recent years, the program has renewed efforts to breed cold-hardy table grapes. Table grapes might require postharvest storage if they are to be transported or stored for any period of time. Rachis dehydration, berry splitting, and decay can affect the postharvest quality of table grapes. In this study, we evaluated these postharvest traits in six released cultivars and nine advanced selections in the breeding program. For two growing seasons, we used industry standard packaging to assess postharvest traits (rachis dehydration, berry splitting, decay, and overall acceptability) at 2, 4, and 6 weeks of cold storage at 2.2 °C. The growing season had a significant effect on postharvest traits; therefore, the two were examined separately. There were significant differences in postharvest storage times for all traits, except berry splitting in 2020. Mean rachis dehydration reached unacceptable values (>3) after 4 weeks of postharvest storage in 2019 and after 6 weeks in 2020. All other trait means remained acceptable for many cultivars even after 6 weeks of postharvest storage. Advanced selections performed at and above the level of released cultivars, suggesting that selections will perform well in cold-hardy regions. The data collected regarding fruit quality and postharvest storage for two seasons will help to inform and improve breeding of cold-hardy grape cultivars.

Sulfur dioxide mitigates oxidative damage by modulating hydrogen peroxide homeostasis in postharvest table grapes

The hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) burst accelerates the decay and senescence of table grapes. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a commercial preservative, is known to maintain the postharvest quality of table grapes. However, the mechanism by which SO2 improves postharvest quality is still unclear. In this study, the effects of SO2 on sulfite reduction, the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle and the H2O2 receptor during storage were evaluated. The results showed that SO2 not only inhibited decay but also reduced the accumulation of H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA). Compared to the control, SO2 treatment increased the activities of sulfite reductase (SiR), serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase (OASTL), the content of cysteine (Cys) and the expression levels of VvSiR, VvSAT1, VvSAT2 and VvOASTL. Enhancement of critical enzyme activity, gene expression and antioxidant content in the AsA-GSH cycle was observed in SO2-treated grapes. Furthermore, VvGS expression was also determined to be involved in GSH synthesis. SO2 repressed the transcription level of VvHPCA1–4, and VvHPCA3 could be used as a candidate gene to evaluate the degree of oxidative damage in table grapes. These findings suggested that SO2 maintained H2O2 homeostasis to alleviate postharvest oxidative damage by activating sulfite reduction and the AsA-GSH cycle along with inhibiting the expression of VvHPCAs.

Induced sulfur metabolism by sulfur dioxide maintains postharvest quality of 'Thompson Seedless' grape through increasing sulfite content.

The commercial preservation of table grapes largely depends on the application of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ). However, little is known about whether SO2 participates in sulfur metabolism to improve the postharvest quality of table grapes. In this study, the contents of sulfur-containing compounds, activities of enzymes, and expression of genes involved in sulfur metabolism in table grapes (Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless) were evaluated. The results indicated that SO2 treatment maintained the postharvest quality of table grapes. The sulfite content in rachises and berries, but not the sulfate content, increased in response to SO2 treatment. SO2 caused high activities of sulfite reductase, O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase, and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, thereby increasing the contents of cysteine, hydrogen sulfide, and glutathione in the rachises and berries. The expression of VvSURTL, VvATPS1, VvATPS2, and VvAPR3 decreased in response to SO2 treatment; however, the transcript levels of VvSiR1 and VvOASTL exhibited the opposite tendency. These findings indicated that the sulfite converted from SO2 participated in sulfur metabolism and maintained the postharvest quality of table grapes by modulating the contents of metabolites, activities of enzymes, and expression of genes related to sulfur metabolism. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Soluble solids content monitoring for shelf-life assessment of table grapes coated with chitosan using hyperspectral imaging

Table grapes have a relatively short shelf-life and degradation rate due to pathogen infestation during postharvest storage. Chitosan (CTS) edible coatings offer a potential alternative for extending the shelf-life of fruit. The objective of this study was to explore the efficacy of CTS edible coatings on the shelf-life of table grapes by the application of hyperspectral imaging for non-invasive and rapid soluble solids content (SSC) monitoring. Table grapes were coated with CTS solutions (0.5%, and 1%, w/v), while the uncoated fruit served as controls. Spectral changes over storage days were investigated using principal component analysis (PCA), and principal component images were extracted to visualize the degradation evolution. Table grapes coated with edible coatings presented significant delays in SSC change and degradation process compared with uncoated fruit. Moreover, partial least squares regression (PLSR) combined with feature bands selected by competitive adaptive reweight sampling (CARS) provided the better performance for SSC prediction with R2 higher than 0.801 for the uncoated and coated grapes. Conclusively, hyperspectral imaging was capable of monitoring the evolution of SSC, and 1% CTS coating was more effective in extending the shelf-life and maintaining postharvest quality of table grapes.

Post-harvest Quality of Table Grapes Marketed in the Municipality of Areia in the State of Paraíba

The semi-arid region of Paraíba is known for the expansion of cultivated areas and agricultural produce, and the high yields and the quality of grapes. The objective of this work was to evaluate the quality table grapes for classification purposes according to the physical and physicochemical characteristics marketed in a local fair in the city of Areia - PB. The work was developed at the Laboratory of Technology of Agricultural Products (LPTA), Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB), Center of Agricultural Sciences (CCA), Campus II, Areia-PB. Table grapes were purchased at the free fair in the municipality of Areia. Two clusters were selected and analyzed according to the Standardization Primer and Classification of the Brazilian Program for Modernization of Horticulture, identifying the group, subgroup, class, subclass, category and the presence of defects (severe or mild). According to the evaluations carried out from the standardization primer, the fruits were slightly damage and/but not changing in their post-harvest quality. The fruits were classified according to commercial standards and suitable for human consumption.

Melatonin treatment improves the shelf-life and postharvest quality of table grape (Vitis labrusca L. cv. ‘Fengzao’)

BACKGROUND: Melatonin (MT) is an endogenous indoleamine that regulates senescence progression and stress response in plants. OBJECTIVE: Here, we investigated the effect of MT on the shelf-life and postharvest quality of table grapes (Vitis labrusca L. cv. ‘Fengzao’). METHODS: After harvesting, ‘Fengzao’ grapes were immersed in MT solution at various concentrations (0 [as control], 0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mM for 2 h and stored at 24±1 for 15 days. Physiological indicators including weight loss rate, firmness, contents of total soluble solids (TSSs), ascorbic acid (AsA), malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and activities of catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were investigated. Additionally, the DNA methylation rate of ‘Fengzao’ grapes were measured using the methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism (MSAP) technique. RESULTS: Application of MT effectively delayed grape senescence in all treatment groups compared with the control, with the longest delay observed in the 0.5 mM treatment. Additionally, the rate of DNA methylation decreased in all the 0.5 mM MT treatment groups, indicating a potential role of MT in demethylation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the exogenous application of MT can delay the senescence of grapes during postharvest.

Pre-harvest Micronized Calcium and Postharvest UV-C Treatments Extend the Quality of ‘Crimson Seedless’ (Vitis vinifera L.) Grapes

Certain postharvest disorders such as rachis desiccation, weight loss, accelerated softening and biochemical changes limit the postharvest life of table grapes. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of pre-harvest micronized calcium pulverizations, postharvest UV-C treatment and their combined applications on extending postharvest quality of table grapes cv ‘Crimson Seedless’. Pre-harvest micronized calcium pulverization was performed to improve rachis greenness and berry resistance while postharvest UV-C was aimed to induce physiological resistance and delay senescence in grape berries. Ca treatments significantly increased chlorophyll concentrations of rachis while Ca plus UV-C was the best treatment to maintain rachis chlorophyll concentration. UV-C with or without pre-harvest Ca treatment effectively delayed the weight loss during the storage. Ca delayed the increase of SSC during the storage. All the treatments, particularly postharvest UV-C, significantly delayed the berry senescence by delaying the decrease in acidity. UV-C with or without Ca, with the lowest values, significantly retarded the changes in phenols and decreased the berry decay. Ca plus UV-C treatment also effectively maintained the skin rupture force during the storage. Overall, pre-harvest micronized Ca pulverizations plus postharvest UV-C treatment can be recommended to extent the quality of table grapes cv. ‘Crimson Seedless’ up to 120 days at cold storage.

Sulfur Dioxide Fumigation for Postharvest Control of Mealybugs on Harvested Table Grapes.

Laboratory fumigations with sulfur dioxide (SO2) were conducted under ultralow oxygen (ULO) and normal atmosphere to determine their effects on mortality of grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn), and vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus Signoret, and postharvest quality of table grapes. Three- and 4-d fumigation treatments with 100 ppm SO2 under 30 ppm ULO condition and normal atmosphere resulted in 100% mortality of eggs and nymphs/adults of vine mealybug. The 3- and 4-d SO2 fumigations under the ULO condition and the normal atmosphere were also effective against grape mealybug with egg mortalities of 85.8% and 98.8% and nymph/adult mortalities of 99.0% and 100%, respectively. There was no significant difference between SO2 fumigations under ULO and the normal atmosphere in insect mortality. One-day fumigation treatments with 400 and 500 ppm SO2 achieved 89.8% and 95.8% mortality of grape mealybug eggs, respectively, and achieved 100% mortality of grape mealybug nymphs and adults. None of the treatments used in this study adversely affected quality of the six table grape cultivars used in the studies. SO2 fumigation under either ULO or normal atmosphere is potentially a useful means for postharvest control of mealybugs on harvested table grapes.

Degradation of pesticide residues by gaseous chlorine dioxide on table grapes

The use of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as a strong oxidant to degrade the pesticide residues on the table grapes was studied. ClO2 releasing process in the sealed box was investigated. The grapes were sprayed with three pesticides and fumigated by ClO2. After 27 d storage in 0°C, the remaining rates of tebuconazole, azoxystrobin, dimethomorph (E) anddimethomorph (Z) on grapes were 65.33, 50.71, 39.48 and 41.06% by ClO2-treatment, respectively. The degradation difference showed that the effect of ClO2 on pesticide residues were dissimilar. The products formed during the ClO2 treatment of pesticides were analyzed by GC–MS analysis and the possible mechanism of the degradation was proposed. In the meantime, the postharvest quality of table grapes was also evaluated. These results showed that ClO2 has great potential application in table grapes industry.

Effect of salicylic acid and aloe vera gel on postharvest quality of table grapes (Vitis vinifera)

Effect of salicylic acid and aloe vera gel on postharvest quality of table grapes (Vitis vinifera)

Strategies to control post-harvest diseases of table grape: a review

ABSTRACTTable grapes are subjected to mycobial decay during post-harvest handling worldwide. During transit and storage of fruit high sugar content of grapes is an ideal substrate for the development of pathogenic microorganisms, establishing processes of rot with consequent loss of products ranging from a minimum of 30–40% in countries with advance technologies, to over 50% in developing countries. Rotting caused by fungi such as Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Mucor and Rhizopus species is the main factor reducing the post-harvest quality of table grapes. Studies related to the management of post-harvest decay of table grapes and prevention of quality losses have been carried out by using several methods such as physical, chemical, biological and botanical. This review gives a detailed idea about all these methods which have been described in numerous research papers recently and in the past and to identify research avenues that can facilitate the implementation of these technologies as preservative of table grapes. Such knowledge could contribute to design of new and more effective technologies for the management of post-harvest decay of table grapes because alternative and integrative strategies like use of biological antagonists, natural compounds and controlled atmosphere storages are the need of the day.

Effects of exogenous 24‐epibrassinolide to control grey mould and maintain postharvest quality of table grapes

SummaryThe potential of various concentrations of 24‐epibrassinolide (EBR) treatments on the control of grey mould in artificial Botrytis cinerea inoculation test and on the maintenance of postharvest quality of table grapes without inoculation in cold storage were researched. In the cold storage, clusters of grapes with exogenous EBR application (EBR1, 0.1 mg L−1 EBR; EBR2, 0.4 mg L−1 EBR; EBR3, 0.8 mg L−1 EBR) were stored at 0 ± 1 °C. Fruits’ quality attributes including berry firmness, weight loss, berry drop, decay berry percentages, total sugar and titratable acidity were measured at 15, 30 and 60 days. The results showed that EBR treatments exhibited a higher berry firmness and a lower percentage of weight loss, berry drop and decay berry. In the artificial inoculation trial, single berries were immersed in EBR1, EBR2 and EBR3, then inoculated by spraying with a B. cinerea spore suspension and stored at 25 ± 2 °C and 95% relative humidity. Disease severity (DS), lipid peroxidation and defence‐related enzymes of these berries were analysed every 2 days. EBR‐treated berries resulted in an increase in activities of defence‐related enzymes including superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase and phenylalanine ammonia‐lyase compared with control berries inoculated by B. cinerea. Simultaneously, significant decreases in DS and production of superoxide anion radical and malondialdehyde were observed. These results suggested that exogenous application of EBR could play a protective role in controlling the grey mould of postharvest grapes and maintaining the postharvest quality during cold storage.

Effects of post-harvest treatment using chitosan from Mucor circinelloides on fungal pathogenicity and quality of table grapes during storage

The aim of this study was to extract chitosan (CHI) from Mucor circinelloides UCP 050 grown in a corn steep liquor (CSL)-based medium under optimized conditions and to assess the efficacy of the obtained CHI to inhibit the post-harvest pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger URM 5162 and Rhizopus stolonifer URM 3482 in laboratory media and as a coating on table grapes (Vitis labrusca L.). The effect of CHI coating on some physical, physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the fruits during storage was assessed. The greatest amount of CHI was extracted from M. circinelloides UCP 050 grown in medium containing 7 g of CSL per 100 mL at pH 5.5 with rotation at 180 rpm. CHI from M. circinelloides UCP 050 caused morphological changes in the spores of the fungal strains tested and inhibited mycelial growth and spore germination. CHI coating delayed the growth of the assayed fungal strains in artificially infected grapes, as well as autochthonous mycoflora during storage. CHI coating preserved the quality of grapes during storage, as measured by their physical, physicochemical and sensory attributes. These results demonstrate that edible coatings derived from M. circinelloides CHI could be a useful alternative for controlling pathogenic fungi and maintaining the post-harvest quality of table grapes.

IMPROVING POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF TABLE GRAPE CV. “RISH BABA” USING THYMUS KOTSCHYANUS AND CARUM COPTICUM ESSENTIAL OILS

ABSTRACTThe antifungal activity of different concentrations of Thymus kotschyanus and Carum copticum essential oils (0, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 µL/L) on mycelial growth of Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium digitatum under in vitro condition were investigated. Also, the preservative property of various concentrations of these essential oils (0, 250 and 500 µL/L) to maintenance quality parameters of “Rish Baba” table grape were studied. Chemical compositions of the essential oils were also determined by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis. Major compounds found in essential oils from T. kotschyanus and C. copticum were carvacrol (28.54%) and thymol (63.18%), respectively. The results of in vitro assay showed that T. kotschyanus and C. copticum essential oils in 300–500 µL/L concentration completely inhibited the mycelial growth of B. cinerea and P. digitatum. Also, at the end of the storage period, all the applied concentration of essential oils reduced disease severity compared to control fruit. The application of essential oil did not affect the berry shrinkage and rachis browning. However, essential oil treatment showed high preservative effect on weight loss, appearance, flavor, berry browning, total soluble solids (TSS), titrable acidity (TA) and TSS/TA of treated fruits. Therefore, essential oils may be used as an alternative for the synthetic chemicals for control of postharvest phytopathogenic fungi, and in turn to fulfill consumer requirements for more natural and healthy fruits.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSPostharvest disease of perishable fruits such as table grape renders heavy losses during transit and storage. Use of chemical fungicides such as SO2 generator pads are basic means of controlling postharvest diseases of table grape. Public awareness about chemical residues in food and interest to use of organic crops intended search to find a new safe alternatives to synthetic fungicides. The main reason for examine the possibility use of essential oils are they plant origins, safe, no side‐effect and their acceptability for consumers. Consequently, recently the interest to use of essential oils to preserve of fruits and vegetables has increased. The goal of this research was to examine the possibility use of T. kotschyanus, C. copticum essential oils to maintain postharvest quality of table grapes.

ETHANOL VAPOR COULD IMPROVE THE EFFICACY OF MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING TO CONTROL GRAY MOLD IN IRANIAN TABLE GRAPE (VITIS VINIFERA L. 'SHAHROODI')

ISHS X International Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Research Conference ETHANOL VAPOR COULD IMPROVE THE EFFICACY OF MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING TO CONTROL GRAY MOLD IN IRANIAN TABLE GRAPE (VITIS VINIFERA L. 'SHAHROODI')

Preharvest applications of growth regulators and their effect on postharvest quality of table grapes during cold storage

Over 54,600 ha of table grapes ( Vitis vinifera), mainly cvs. ‘Thompson Seedless’, ‘Flame Seedless’ and ‘Redglobe’, are planted in Chile. Almost the entire production is exported to the USA, Europe, Asia, or one of several Latin American countries, which typically requires 15–40 d of maritime transportation. During this period, several physical, physiological, and pathological factors cause table grape deterioration. Because berry size is the main quality factor in international markets, farmers often overuse the growth regulators, gibberellic acid (GA 3) and forchlorfenuron (CPPU), in an effort to increase berry size. We examined the effect of preharvest growth regulators on seedless (‘Thompson Seedless’, and ‘Ruby Seedless’) and seeded (‘Redglobe’) table grape cultivars during cold (0 °C) storage plus a shelf life period of 3 d at 20 °C. The overuse of GA 3, eight instead of two GA 3 applications on Thompson Seedless, and the use of one GA 3 application on Redglobe and ‘Ruby Seedless’, increased berry pedicel thickness and lowered cuticle content but induced shatter and predisposed grapes to gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea. In contrast, CPPU increased berry pedicel thickness and cuticle content but did not increase shatter or gray mold incidence. Clusters that were subjected to overuse of combined GA 3 and CPPU were highly sensitive to shatter, had the thickest pedicel, and developed a high gray mold incidence during cold storage. Hairline, a fine cracking developed during cold storage, was induced on ‘Thompson Seedless’ and ‘Ruby Seedless’ by growth regulators, but no hairline occurred on ‘Redglobe’ table grapes. Therefore, berry quality during cold storage is greatly influenced by growth regulator management in the vineyard.

POTENTIAL FOR ETHANOL VAPOURS TO LIMIT TABLE GRAPE BERRY SHATTER AND TO LIMIT ETHYLENE EVOLUTION FROM CLUSTERS

We have shown previously that ethanol vapours (given by 2 ml per kg of grapes) can prevent Botrytis development and stem browning, two of the major problems in postharvest quality of table grapes. In the present paper, we will give emphasis to preliminary results about (i) the role of ethanol vapours in the inhibition of berry shatter and (ii) the control of ethylene evolution from grapes bunches by ethanol vapours and the link to the control of Botrytis.