post-Soviet Tajikistan Research Articles

ОСНОВНЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПЕНИТЕНЦИАРНОЙ СИСТЕМЫ В ТАДЖИКИСТАНЕ И ПУТИ ИХ РЕШЕНИЯ

The article highlights the main stages of formation and development in penitentiary policy of modern Tajikistan. The author considers the issues of the penitentiary system, which include the shortage of places for serving sentences, unsatisfactory conditions of detention, the spread of socially dangerous diseases among prisoners, the lack of adequate mechanisms for organizing the work of those serving sentences, in the context of the general political and economic situation in the Republic of Tajikistan. In the author’s opinion, the penitentiary system of Tajikistan is projected on the whole inherent issues of post-Soviet Tajikistan, aggravated by the Civil War of 1992–1997: lack of efficiency of the economy and public administration, deficit of financial resources, unsatisfactory rates and quality of human capital development, etc. The special problem is the geopolitical situation in the Republic of Tajikistan. A special issue is the geopolitical situation of Tajikistan, which borders on turbulent Afghanistan and is in a zone of increased danger associated with drug trafficking, arms smuggling and the activities of various extremist groups. Such a situation, as the author points out, creates an additional and very serious burden on the penitentiary system of the Republic of Tajikistan. One of the central subjects considered in the article is the reform of the Tajikistan penitentiary system. Turning to the issue, the author pays special attention to its foreign policy aspect and draws the reader’s attention to the ambiguity of the role played by international organizations in improving the national penitentiary policy

Gender and the navigation of STEM careers in higher education institutions: Narratives of female faculty in post-Soviet Tajikistan

ABSTRACT The underrepresentation of female faculty in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines is a globally acknowledged gender equity concern; however, it remains under-researched in post-Soviet contexts. Using a theoretically informed analysis, this paper explores how female STEM faculty members navigate their gender identities in domestic and academic spheres in post-Soviet Tajikistan. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 female faculty members. The results indicated that parental discourses and family circumstances enabled female faculty members to defy the gendered oppositional inscription of STEM, while the performance of non-hegemonic masculinities by spouses, male mentors, and academic supervisors supported their career advancement. However, the gendered micropolitics of higher education institutions significantly undermined the performance of female STEM faculty members’ identity and subjected them to discrimination, marginalisation, and isolation.

Pamiri Ethnic Nationalism in Tajikistan; a Rising Threat against Future of Gilgit-Baltistan and Pak-China Economic Corridor (CPEC)

Pamiri ethnic nationalism in Post-Soviet Tajikistan has led to short-lived sovereign status in Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region from 1992 to 1997 that has now been transmitted in the remaining parts of entire Badakhshan Region / Pamir Mountain Range; covering Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County of Tajikistan, and, Chitral District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province and Gilgit-Baltistan Autonomous Region of Pakistan. As Pak-China Economic Corridor is crossing through Gilgit-Baltistan, anti-Pakistan elements can not only trigger Pamiri ethnic nationalism on the basis of former historical sovereignty, separate linguistic identity, or unique sectarian believes. This study discusses the ways of the Pamiri ethnic community in the entire Badakhshan Region that has little been inspiring from the ethnonational separatism in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan. Similarly, anti-Pakistan and anti-CPEC elements are also analyzed in this study that is trying to disturb the socio-political and religious environment of Gilgit-Baltistan to disrupt CPEC. Future assessments of the region after completing CPEC, historical background and economic worth of the Gilgit-Baltistan, and, developmental opportunities for Afghanistan and Tajikistan are also observed in this study.

Этноязыковая ситуация в Горно-Бадахшанской Автономной Области Республики Таджикистан

In this paper I researched the language situation of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast’ of Tajikistan. In the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast’ the status of Pamiris is now very low, and even they are ignored. And their languages are serving as a colloquial language in everyday life. Until the 1920s, Pamir languages are regarded as a different languages, but in 1926 it fell to dialects of Tajik language. In post-Soviet Tajikistan, Pamir languages are still a minority languages. Although the Language law adopted by Tajikistan in 1989 created conditions for the preservation, use and development of Pamir languages of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast’, there is still ostensible preservation, use and development, and described their function problems as autonomous areas of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast’, the status of these languages is still low. The issue of ethnic minority language was completely excluded from everyday life during the Tajikistan civil war, and as political centralization accelerated after the civil war, there is no meaningful policy for Gorno-Badakhshan at present. The declarative status of Gorno-Badakhshan s need to support and develop ethnic minority languages is only ostensible and does not exist.

Islam Radicalization Factors in Post-Soviet Tajikistan

This article explores the problem of Islamic fundamentalism in Tajikistan. The relevance of the topic is due to the fact that in this Republic there is the greatest activity of Islamist movements among all CIS countries. The potential destabilization of the situation in Tajikistan threatens the entire sub-region of Central Asia, and may also lead to the transit of instability to the Russian North Caucasus. In this paper, the author examines the influence of religious, socio-economic and other factors on the radicalization of Islam in this post-Soviet Republic, as well as the activities of fundamentalist groups with a focus on the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRPT).

Women’s bargaining power and contraception use in post-Soviet Tajikistan

ABSTRACT This article aims to examine the relationship between women’s household bargaining power and their adoption of modern contraception in post-Soviet Tajikistan using the 2012 Demographic and Health Survey. The study uses direct measures of bargaining weights: a woman’s ability to make decisions about her own health care; visits to her family or relatives; and contraceptive use. An additional measure defining a woman’s financial capability to receive medical treatment for herself is added in the analysis to understand its correlation to women’s contraceptive-use behaviour. The probability of using contraception is 187 percentage points higher for a woman who has both control over her own health care and financial means to get medical help than a woman who does not have these choices. Having a say in the decision to control births increases the probability of using contraception by 98 percentage points. Our findings reveal that certain aspects of a woman’s household decision-making and financial freedom are relevant to explain her contraceptive-use behaviour.

Questioning local ownership: Insights from donor-funded NGOs in Tajikistan

ABSTRACTLocal ownership is one of the popular paradigms of Western development aid. It involves giving more effective control of the design and implementation of development aid to local actors in aid-receiving countries, including governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local communities. This article contrasts the understanding of local ownership as a top-down process triggered by donors, with an alternative, bottom-up ownership, which emerges spontaneously on the ground. By looking at the case of a local NGO in post-Soviet Tajikistan, the article analyses practices which reveal how the NGO actively takes ownership of development aid through everyday work. This includes fundraising, structuring relations with other organizations competing for donor funding, selecting calls for proposals from NGOs and writing grant applications. Each of these activities involves negotiations of the goals and scope of development work, against parameters imposed by donors. By means of example, the article questions the application of the local ownership paradigm in development work.

When IOM encounters the field: localising the migration and development paradigm in Tajikistan

ABSTRACT This article analyses localisation of the migration and development paradigm, promoted worldwide by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), by unpacking transformations that this approach undergoes in aid-receiving countries assisted by this organisation. Drawing on insights from International Relations and the anthropology of development, and taking the case of a specific policy transfer initiated by IOM in post-Soviet Tajikistan, which involved setting up a local state-operated labour recruitment system for industries abroad, the article advances three arguments. First, the crucial relevance of actors in the field, namely brokers who arrange and navigate IOM's collaborations with various actors on the ground, reveals that the authority of IOM in Tajikistan is personalised and relational, rather than institutional. Second, the existence of brokers points to an ideological heterogeneity within IOM, which on the surface seems united in its pursuit of the migration and development agenda. Third, this article problematises the role of IOM in Tajikistan, showing that the organisation interferes in state-citizens relations and that its rhetoric of migration and development justifies a market-tailored export of local labour, serving the global capitalist economy. The article contributes to research on IOM, as well as global-local interactions and international organisations in the field.

Institutional Isomorphism in Religious Entities of Post-Soviet Tajikistan

Grounded in institutional isomorphism theory, the paper analyzes the extent to which the process of homogenization (isomorphism) can be useful in our understanding of changes within religious entities. Examining the emergence and development of religious entities in post-Soviet Tajikistan, I find that three isomorphic mechanisms are less dependent on the impact of religious institutional environments and interaction among religious organizations. Rather, isomorphic changes are manifested as the result of interaction with the state. Mimetic and normative processes are observed in a weak state, whereas coercive isomorphism is exerted under the influence of a strong state. A relative heterogeneity of the religious field is observed in the first two stages of the development of religious entities. Once the state expands its regulation and control, religious entities become more homogeneous in structure and administration due to coercive isomorphism. Implications for extending the concept of institutional isomorphism beyond traditional organizational fields are discussed.

The feminization of agriculture in post-Soviet Tajikistan

In this paper we aim to analyse economic and social transition factors affecting the agricultural labor force and to understand the feminization phenomenon in rural Tajikistan. Agrarian reforms, seasonal male labor outmigration, and the subsequent increase in women's labor participation have facilitated changes in gender occupational segregation. We assume that in post-Soviet transition countries such as Tajikistan, the process of feminization grew from the need to take on jobs and to to slip in the role of the breadwinner due to the absence of men. The process enabled women to gain knowledge and experience in new employment positions.We contribute to the knowledge on feminization by conducting qualitative, case based analysis through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions and present unique data on previously unobserved employment categories and their characteristics from the Sughd province of Tajikistan.Results suggest that existing local systems of power and male-dominated relationships are being challenged due to male labor force outmigration, leading to a feminization of the remaining labor force and recipient clients. The jobs women perform remain subject to low protection, security, and earnings. However, increased participation in the labor force provides a gateway to a wider spectrum of labor opportunities and advances women's roles in primary agricultural production as well as in the service supply sector, and provides them a certain amount of control over their own lives.

Soft budgets and elastic debt: farm liabilities in the agrarian political economy of post-Soviet Tajikistan

ABSTRACTSince Tajikistan’s independence, market reforms and pressure from international donors have brought changes to the state’s role in the economy. The official narrative holds that the post-socialist state reduced its control over agriculture, but there are still various mechanisms through which it exerts control over farming. In this paper, I examine Tajikistan’s post-socialist agrarian change through the prism of farm debt. Farm debt used to be an accounting nuisance in Soviet agriculture as a result of so-called soft-budget constraints. In the political economy of post-socialist transformation, farm cotton debt has been transformed into indebted land. I classify this debt ‘elastic’ for its ambiguous nature. It ties farmers to land and makes farmers’ independence illusory. With an in-depth analysis based on original ethnographic insights, I aim to provide a theoretical contribution to the way in which debt is conceptualised and politicised in post-Soviet Tajikistan.

Representations of Armed Women in Soviet and Post-Soviet Tajikistan: Describing and Restricting Women’s Agency

In both Soviet and post-Soviet Tajikistan, representations of armed women are a key propaganda topic for the regime, as it allows the production and imposition of gender roles, including norms of femininity. This article analyses the representations of armed women presented in both the state press and state-funded research in Soviet and post-Soviet Tajikistan. The analysis reveals the making of the Soviet periphery and questions the continuities and ruptures between Soviet and post-Soviet regimes. Part one analyses how Tajikistani armed women were represented in the collective memories of the Great Patriotic War, revealing gender hierarchies and hierarchies between Soviet centre and periphery. In the second part of the article, I analyse how representations of armed women changed in the post-Soviet regime. In the post-conflict context, women are mainly celebrated by the nationalist state for their peaceful attitude and “pure” behaviour. Whilst Tajikistani women are encouraged to join the police forces by the government, the state press dedicated to women promotes a double burden for women: to be a woman in uniform and to be a mother.

The Role and Place of the Periodical Press in the Formation of a New National Identity in Tajikistan of the Restructuring Period (1985–1991)

Background/Objectives: The article discusses the role, place and importance of the publications of the periodical press in Tajikistan of restructuring period on the problems of the Tajiks new national identity. Methods analysis : It should be noted that the analysis of the entire Tajik journalism of restructuring period presented in the press of that era cannot be performed in one article. In this article, we just tried to trace the main topics of the periodical materials, briefly analyze them and determine their role in the formation of the new Tajik identity. Hence, this topic will remain relevant and it will require a full-scale study in the future. Findings: A series of articles published in newspapers and magazines in Tajikistan of restructuring period are analyzed in chronological order. It is emphasized that the publications of that period had and still have some impact on the formation of the national identity of post-Soviet Tajikistan, and therefore still have not lost their relevance and value. Improvements : The article can be useful to researchers who are interested in various aspects of the history and the current situation inCentral Asia,Tajikistan in particular.

Historical Narrative, Intertextuality, and Cultural Continuity in Post-Soviet Tajikistan

Abstract This article considers the relationship of historical narrative to reconceptualizations of religious self-understanding in post-Soviet Tajikistan. Oral historical narratives and related bodies of printed literature associated with the lives and exploits of pre-Soviet exemplars have enabled new religious practices and helped form the basis of new post-Soviet religious identification practices. Narrators use historical narrative to create intertextual relationships between newly fashioned narratives and traditional paradigms of saintly and political power. Intertextual relationships lend legitimacy to contemporary devotion and allow for unique configurations of post-Soviet cultural continuity by establishing discursive connections between the pre-Soviet and post-Soviet religious environments. Oral historical narrative and its accompanying patterns of cultural continuity are central to the post-Soviet devotional project in Tajikistan.

Switching to Satr: An Ethnography of the Particular in Women’s Choices in Head Coverings in Tajikistan

In the early years of the Soviet Union, women in Central Asia were forcibly unveiled in an attempt to suppress Islam and create the “new Soviet woman.” A post-Soviet Islamic revival in Central Asia has brought with it the renewed practice of veiling. Women adopt hijab and other conservative head coverings for complex reasons as they seek identity and belonging in Tajikistan’s evolving society. Nevertheless, the current regime views the veiled Muslim woman as a threat to the imagined national identity. The sociopolitical elite perpetuates these policies and practices, subjugating women who choose to veil. This article explores how women experience the practice of veiling in post-Soviet Tajikistan.

University Graduates’ Skills Mismatches in Central Asia: Employers’ Perspectives From Post-Soviet Tajikistan

This paper examines employers’ perspectives about university graduates’ skills and preparation for employment in post-Soviet Tajikistan. It explores the mismatch between the skills university graduates acquire and the skills required in the job market, and addresses some of the underlying reasons for the perceived skills mismatch. Thematic analysis of interviews with employers’ and secondary data suggest that the quality of higher education has declined considerably over the past two decades, widening the gap between the skills acquired by university graduates and those required by employers. The findings show that despite a rapid expansion of the higher education sector in Tajikistan, an increasing number of individuals are obtaining degrees, but fail to demonstrate a basic understanding of their field of study. I argue that while the skills mismatch derives from the challenges faced by the education system, a latent labor market and a weak economy are also contributing to the skills mismatch. The goals set by politicians and policy-makers, envisioning the internationalization of education and the preparation of the graduates to be responsive to the local and global labor market needs, seem far from being achieved in the near future. Employers’ perspectives suggest that the reform of the education sector without the creation of more decent job opportunities will likely exacerbate the current skills mismatch in Tajikistan.

Bandits, warlords, national heroes: interpretations of the Basmachi movement in Tajikistan

The history of the Basmachi movement has occupied a prominent place in the construction of a collective past in Soviet and post-Soviet Tajikistan. This article traces the evolution of its representations in the dominant narrative from the 1950s to the present day. It argues that official discourse in contemporary Tajikistan situates the Basmachis in the mould of a national struggle against Turkic oppression, rather than portraying them, in the manner of earlier prevalent models, as part of a class-based or anti-colonialist resistance. Among many public counter-narratives, the one focusing on the local appeal of the Basmachi leaders has the greatest potential to challenge the government-sponsored reading of Tajikistan's past and thus the image of a unified nation it seeks to support.

Between national idea and international conflict: the Roghun HHP as an anti-colonial endeavor, body of the nation, and national wealth

This contribution examines the nationalist politics and international controversy surrounding the construction plans for Roghun dam and hydropower station in post-Soviet Tajikistan. Conceived in 1970s as part of the Soviet ‘hydraulic mission’, this project has taken on new meanings in the second decade after Central Asian states acquired their sovereignty. This grandiose undertaking has become the ‘symbol of the nation’ and a ‘national idea’ in Tajikistan, reflecting popular hopes for dignified living and bolstering the ruling regime’s claim to power. Meanwhile, the neighbouring Uzbekistan dismisses the project as ‘silly’ and objects to it on environmental, economic and safety grounds, water becomes simultaneously an economic, social, physical, metaphysical and cultural resource. While the clashing visions of the upstream and downstream state are deeply rooted in the local histories and political contexts, the competing doctrines of water use reflect the global trends and debates regarding proper use of transboundary water resources, commodification of water and fundamental human right to access to water including for food production. Both countries gained independence under the conditions of globalization. Tajikistani society experienced a civil war, which has been described as a ‘complex crisis of decolonization’ (Heathershaw, Post-conflict Tajikistan: the politics of peace building and the emergence of legitimate order, 2009) in the first decade of its existence as a sovereign state. The resurrection of Roghun project not only serves the economic and political interests of Tajik ruling elite, it has also become a popular anti-colonial undertaking—this time overcoming dependence on a more powerful neighbor—Uzbekistan.

Sex, urban/rural and minority differences in educational attainment in Soviet and post-Soviet Tajikistan

This paper analyses the educational attainment of Tajikistani adults born between 1947 and 1989. Adults in the oldest cohorts completed school during the educational expansion of the Soviet period and the youngest cohorts completed their education in the post-Soviet period, which was marked by educational contraction. To date, there is not a clear picture of attainment trends during the Soviet period that provide a perspective for judging educational attainment in the post-Soviet period. Using household survey data collected in 2007 by the World Bank, I conduct a synthetic cohort analysis to estimate the likelihood of completing basic, secondary and higher education for men and women; urban and rural residents and ethnic majority and minority citizens. Findings for particular groups are mixed, but in general the gap in educational attainment between advantaged groups and disadvantaged groups narrows during the Soviet era, but widens in the post-Soviet period.

Through Civil War, Food Crisis and Drought: Trends in Fertility and Nuptiality in Post-Soviet Tajikistan

This article has two objectives. First, it aims to complement and extend existing research on post-socialist demographic change, which has thus far tended to focus on Central and Eastern Europe. It does this by describing the nature of post- Soviet trends in nuptiality and fertility in Tajikistan, the republic with the highest rate of population growth during the Soviet period. It finds evidence for a decrease in period fertility after independence: initially, through a decline at higher orders; then, through a significant decrease in the rate of first births, associated with a dramatic decrease in the rate of first union formation since the mid-1990s. Second, it aims to contribute to the demography of conflict and of food crisis. Most clearly, it finds strong evidence for a decrease in nuptiality and fertility associated with the 1995 food crisis.