Postharvest Fungicide Treatments Research Articles

Assessment of a Postharvest Treatment with Pyrimethanil via Thermo-Nebulization in Controlling Storage Rots of Apples

Apples are very susceptible to infections from various fungal pathogens during the growing season due to prolonged exposure to environmental influences in the field. Therefore, a strict and targeted fungicide strategy is essential to protect fruit and trees. Increased environmental and health concerns and pathogen resistance have resulted in a rising demand to reduce fungicide usage and residues on marketed fruit. Thus, producers must develop new plant protection strategies to conform to the legal and social demands while still offering high-quality apples. This study assessed the efficacy of a post-harvest fungicide treatment with pyrimethanil via thermo-nebulization for controlling storage rots and compared the results to those of standard pre-harvest fungicide strategies. The results showed that a single post-harvest application of pyrimethanil successfully controlled storage rots and is comparable to strategies using multiple pre-harvest fungicide applications. The control of fungal rot was sustained even after 5 months of storage and 2 weeks of shelf life. Thermo-nebulization into the storage facility allowed for a lower dosage of fungicide to be used compared to pre-harvest applications, while still maintaining optimal rot control. Residue analyses showed that the post-harvest fungicide treatment did not exceed legal or retailer’s standards.

Effects of different comercial coatings on postharvest citrus fruit quality for export

El uso de recubrimientos tiene como objetivo evitar la deshidratación, minimizar la aparición de manchas en la piel y la pérdida de peso, además de prolongar la vida poscosecha y mantener la apariencia de los frutos. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar el efecto de diferentes recubrimientos en la calidad, la pérdida de peso y la producción de acetaldehído y etanol en distintas variedades de mandarina y naranja, durante el almacenamiento poscosecha. Para ello, frutos de distintas variedades, con o sin desverdizado, y con tratamiento fungicida poscosecha, fueron tratados con los recubrimientos comerciales Brillaqua UE-Mercosur y UEJ-Mercosur, Citrosol AUE y Sunseal, y Concentrol AC36, en condiciones experimentales, repitiéndose la evaluación de los más promisorios en condiciones comerciales junto con Brillaqua UEF6-Mercosur, Citrosol AKUE y Tecnidex Teycer-GLK. En ambos ensayos la fruta se almacenó durante 6 semanas a 1±0,5 °C más 7 días a temperatura ambiente, simulando la vida comercial. Se evaluó la calidad visual e interna de los frutos en diferentes momentos del almacenamiento. Ningún tratamiento afectó negativamente la firmeza, la calidad externa o interna de la fruta en comparación con el control comercial BRIUE. Los recubrimientos más promisorios para su aplicación en poscosecha de frutos cítricos y posterior almacenamiento a 1 °C fueron Brillaqua UEF6-Mercosur, Citrosol AKUE y Tecnidex Teycer-GLK, presentando un nivel de brillo, aspecto visual general y calidad superiores. No se descartan los recubrimientos Concentrol AC36 y Citrosol AUE, con aceptables niveles de brillo luego de la conservación, aspecto visual general, así como niveles de acetaldehído y etanol.

Stimulation of Light-Emitting Diode Treatment on Defence System and Changes in Mesocarp Metabolites of Avocados Cultivars (Hass and Fuerte) during Simulated Market Shelf Conditions

The ability of light-emitting diode (LED) light treatment to reduce the anthracnose decay via its eliciting effects and thus induce resistance in the avocado (Persea americana), was investigated in this study to replace the current postharvest fungicide treatment. In experiment 1, the effect of blue or red LED lights (6 h per day) on the incidence of anthracnose in artificially inoculated (Colletotrichum gloesposorioides) and naturally infected avocados (cv. Fuerte and Hass) at 12–14 °C (simulated market shelf) for 4, 8, 14, and 16 days was investigated. In experiment 2, the effect of blue or red LED lights on the induced defence mechanism, fruit metabolites, antioxidant activity, and percentage of fruit reaching ready-to-eat stage was determined. Exposure to red LED light significantly reduced the anthracnose decay incidence in naturally infected cv. Fuerte on day 12 and in cv. Hass on day 16 compared to the prochloraz fungicide treatment by upregulating the PAL genes and maintaining the epicatechin content. Blue LED light accelerated the ripening in both cultivars, probably due to reduced D-mannoheptulose content. Red LED light exposure for 6 h per day and 12 days storage showed potential to replace the prochloraz treatment with improved ascorbic acid content and antioxidant activity.

Nitrogen and carbon management in Australian mango orchards to improve productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Australian mango orchards, particularly of the 'Kensington Pride' cultivar, are often characterized by low yields and irregular bearing. Improved nutrition management techniques which increase total soil carbon sequestration and reduce nitrogen losses (nitrous oxide) may improve productivity and also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A factorial trial was established in a 'Kensington Pride' mango orchard at Mareeba, Australia to assess the benefits of applying organic hay mulch to tree rows in combination with three nitrogen fertiliser treatments including two controlled-release fertiliser products. Three years after the initiation of treatments it was found that mango tree growth and fruit productivity was significantly improved when mulching was used to increase soil organic matter. Mulched soils had improved soil water holding capacity, less temperature variability, increased root biomass in the top soil, greater canopy leaf area and higher plant tissue potassium levels. Average fruit weights were increased by 10% and mango fruit yields per tree increased by 11%. Fruit quality was not affected when standard fungicide management treatments were used, although disease levels were higher with no post-harvest fungicide treatment. The nitrogen fertiliser products investigated did not have a significant influence on mango growth or final productivity. Trial results suggest that the adoption of mulching practices in mango orchards is a management practice which can increase orchard productivity and the sequestration of soil organic carbon, without detrimental effects on fruit quality.

Postharvest fungicide treatments and cold storage control citrus black spot infections

Citrus black spot (CBS) is caused by Phyllosticta citricarpa, which is regarded as a quarantine pathogen in certain countries. Pest risk assessments disagree on the risk of fruit as a pathway for introduction of the pest to new areas. Some countries accordingly regulate the movement of fruit from production regions where CBS occurs. Preharvest fungicide sprays are very effective in controlling CBS, but cannot consistently achieve complete control. The effect of postharvest treatments on CBS infections and on the reproductive ability of P. citricarpa in lesions that formed after these treatments was studied. Trials were conducted using naturally infected ‘Eureka’ lemon and Valencia orange fruit. Asymptomatic fruit were treated using commonly used packhouse sanitation and fungicide treatments, and cold storage (individually and combined), as well as alternative stand-alone treatments. After treatment, fruit were stored for 5 weeks (in the dark) at ambient temperature (20–22 °C) or −0.5–7 °C, whereafter they were incubated for a further 2 weeks at conditions conducive to expression of symptoms and formation of pycnidia. Individual treatments generally resulted in variable levels of control. The combination of packhouse treatments (including pre-packhouse drench with guazatine or propiconazole in combination with pyrimethanil, thiabendazole and 2,4-D; chlorine wash; dip treatment in imazalil; and brush application of a wax coating incorporated with imazalil, thiabendazole and 2,4-D) consistently showed moderate to high levels of control of CBS development from latent infections on lemons (32.4–43.4% for incidence and 61.6–68.3% for severity) and oranges (58.3–85.7% for incidence and 54.1%–88.8% for severity). However, cold storage subsequent to packhouse treatments (as is common shipping protocol) further improved the levels of control (44.0–58.3% for incidence and 78.1–82.5% for severity on lemons; 66.1–93.5% for incidence and 85.3–98.5% for severity on oranges). An average of 10% of new lesions on lemons and 15% on oranges formed pycnidia, indicating that P. citricarpa generally had a low reproductive capability in fruit lesions, which was in most cases further diminished by the combination of treatments followed by cold storage.

Pruning of Manchurian Crabapple for Management of Speck Rot and Sphaeropsis Rot in Apple

Phacidiopycnis washingtonensis and Sphaeropsis pyriputrescens are fungal pathogens that cause postharvest speck rot and Sphaeropsis rot, respectively, in apple. Under quarantine regulations established by the Chinese government, export of apple from Washington State to China was banned between 2012 and 2014 because of detection of these pathogens in apple shipments. Previous studies established that pycnidia of P. washingtonensis and S. pyriputrescens survive in twig cankers on manchurian crabapple which serves as a dominant pollinizer in the Washington State apple industry. These pycnidia serve as a primary source of inoculum for infection of apple fruit in the orchard. The objective of this research was to conduct a study at multiple locations in Washington State to determine the efficacy of implementing manchurian crabapple pruning as a method to control speck rot and Sphaeropsis rot in storage. Four commercial orchards at geographically distant locations in Washington State were selected in 2014 and three in 2015. In 2014, two treatments included preharvest pruning of manchurian crabapple and postharvest application of pyrimethanil and untreated control. In 2015, preharvest pruning alone (PO) of manchurian crabapple was included in addition to the two treatments examined in 2014. Pruning conducted in concert with postharvest fungicide treatment significantly reduced the incidence of speck rot and Sphaeropsis rot in storage during the initial experimental field season. During year 2, both the PO and pruning with postharvest fungicide application controlled fruit rot with no significant difference between the two treatments. Findings from this study will be instrumental for the control of these postharvest diseases and maintenance of international market access for fruit from the Pacific Northwest.

The Effects of Postharvest Hot Water and Fungicide Treatments on Guignardia citricarpa Growth and the Development of Citrus Black Spot Symptoms on ‘Valencia’ Orange Fruit

Citrus black spot (CBS), caused by Guignardia citricarpa, is a fungal disease that was first described in Australia in the 1890s and has since been discovered in Southwest Florida in 2010. The current study evaluated the effects of hot water treatments on mycelial growth of G. citricarpa in vitro and also evaluated postharvest hot-water dips and fungicide treatments on CBS development on ‘Valencia’ oranges. In vitro exposure to 56 °C for 120 seconds, 59 °C for 60 seconds, or 62 °C for 30 seconds suppressed mycelial growth of all three G. citricarpa isolates by >30%. These treatments did not significantly reduce disease incidence or severity of CBS lesion development on whole ‘Valencia’ oranges from CBS-infected trees when the fruit already had visible CBS symptoms before treatment. On asymptomatic fruit, while the treatments did not significantly reduce the incidence of CBS lesion development, fruit dipped in 56 °C water for 120 seconds significantly reduced disease severity after 2 weeks of storage compared with the control. None of the treatments caused peel scalding or fruit quality deterioration. Postharvest application of azoxystrobin, imazalil, or thiabendazole significantly reduced CBS disease severity on fruit that were asymptomatic at harvest, but did not affect disease incidence. These fungicides were not effective on fruit harvested later in the season (April), possibly because most lesion expression had already occurred before harvest, with little left to develop after harvest. On fruit showing CBS symptoms at harvest, postharvest fungicide treatments did not significantly affect disease incidence or severity after storage. Heating the fungicide solutions did not significantly improve fungicide effectiveness. These results demonstrated that fungicide azoxystrobin, imazalil, or thiabendazole could reduce CBS severity, but not incidence, on orange fruit that are still asymptomatic at harvest.

Characterization of sensitivity of grove and packing house isolates of Penicillium digitatum to pyrimethanil

In most northeast Argentinean citrus packing houses, postharvest fungicide treatments are based on the use of thiabendazole and imazalil. However, these fungicides have been used in a manner highly conducive to the selection and proliferation of resistant biotypes of Penicillium digitatum, the main fruit decay fungus in the area. Recently, a new fungicide, pyrimethanil (PYR), was introduced to control molds. Aims of this study were to determine the baseline sensitivities for PYR against isolates of P. digitatum considering its use in the region is not yet widespread and to evaluate the control of the fungus in vivo. One hundred and nine (109) P. digitatum isolates were collected from diseased fruit within citrus groves (43 isolates) and packing houses (66 isolates). EC50 was determined for each isolate by measuring colony diameters on different agar dilutions of the fungicide. The mean EC50 value of the green mold isolates collected from the groves was 0.14±0.03mgL−1 while the mean EC50 of those collected from packing houses was 0.13±0.05mgL−1. No resistant isolates were found in the field where the fungicide is not used, while one isolate originated from a packing house showed an EC50 of 3.40mgL−1, 26-fold higher than the mean level. This isolate was collected from lemons stored in cool rooms of a packing house where PYR had not been used. Fruit decay by sensitive isolates was reduced approximately 80% by PYR applied at 500–600mgL−1 by immersion for 60s at room temperature to inoculated oranges and mandarins. In contrast, the resistant isolate was not controlled by PYR applied at 1000mgL−1. Thus, the introduction of PYR applied into packing houses should be done carefully and control strategies should be implemented in order to minimize the development of resistant isolates.

Predicted economic impact of black Sigatoka on the Australian banana industry

While Australia has lifted its outright ban on banana imports, very strict pre-entry requirements remain in place making it prohibitively expensive for foreign suppliers to land product in Australia. These include the establishment and maintenance of areas of low pest prevalence (following guidelines described in FAO, 2005; FAO, 2007, respectively), trash minimization procedures and post-harvest fungicide treatments (Biosecurity Australia, 2008). Strict though these import requirements are and small the risk of exotic disease transference may be, the potential consequences of some disease outbreaks to the Australian banana industry is potentially huge. In this paper we provide quantitative estimates of these potential damages (in Australian dollars, A$) and discuss the implications for Australia's import risk assessment process using the example of black Sigatoka. In 2001 this disease was detected in the Tully region of Queensland, a major banana production region. The cause of the outbreak remains unknown (Molina et al., 2005), but it was detected early enough to be eradicated at a cost A$17 million (Sosnowski et al., 2009). This outbreak has failed to quell calls to relax banana import requirements further, and criticism continues to be directed at Australia's import risk assessment process and its associated appropriate level of protection (Javelosa and Schmitz, 2006; Leroux and Maclaren, 2011). This is a locus of disease arrival probabilities and outbreak consequences with a unique product which forms a maximum expected damage a product entering the country can pose before violating Australian quarantine regulations. However, in practice the appropriate level of protection is not stated in quantitative terms, but is instead defined in rather ambiguous qualitative terms as very low. Our analysis provides quantitative evidence suggesting that in the case of banana imports, the appropriate level of protection corresponds to an expected damage of A$60 million per annum. This suggests that although current quarantine regulations are trade-restrictive, the appropriate level of protection corresponds to a relatively severe level of damage.

Effect of tomato post-harvest fungicide treatment and storage conditions on the quality of fruits, and biological value of tomato pulp and concentrated pulp

The influence of storage conditions on the quality of tomato fruits was tested. The rate of ripening was established in normal air, where tomatoes ripen quickly, under controlled atmosphere where they ripen more slowly and under low pressure, where they ripen slowest. The influence of post-harvest benomyl or methylthiophanate treatment on tomato rot, ripening, and biological value were examined. Post-harvest tomato treatment did not reduce fruit rot. The color of fruits and the processed products depended on the fungicide treatment. Concentrated tomato pulp made of fruits treated with methylthiophanate was redder than the others. The fungicide treatment increased or decreased the level of some chemical substances in the fruits in dependence on the applied fungicide, storage conditions and the length of storage, e.g. tomatoes treated with benomyl and stored for 14 days contained the highest level of vitamin C under 0% CO<sub>2</sub>:3%O<sub>2</sub> and tomatoes treated with methylthiophanate contained the highest level of vitamin C under 38 mm Hg. Degradation of vitamin C in pulp was faster than in the concentrated pulp. Tomato pulp made of tomatoes treated with methylthiophanate contained the lowest level of vitamin C.

Orchard calcium and fungicide treatments mitigate effects of delayed postharvest fungicide applications for control of postharvest decay of pear fruit

Postharvest decay of pear fruit is commonly initiated at wounds that occur during harvest and handling, yet pears may be held in cold storage for considerable lengths of time before fungicides are applied to prevent postharvest decay. The efficacy of postharvest fungicide treatments declines as the time between harvest and fungicide treatment increases. Foliar sprays of calcium chloride applied to ‘Bosc’ pear trees beginning in mid-July and repeated every two weeks for a total of three applications slowed the increase in decay incidence observed when thiabendazole or fludioxonil treatments were delayed up to eight weeks after harvest. Increased decay incidence due to delayed postharvest fungicide application was also reduced by application of either pyraclostrobin + boscalid, thiophanate-methyl, or trifloxystrobin one week before harvest. Calcium chloride treatments followed by either of the pre-harvest fungicides provided the greatest decay suppression when postharvest fungicide treatments were delayed. Decay control by fludioxonil treatment was superior to that provided by thiabendazole when the fungicides were applied to fruit promptly after harvest, but differences between these two fungicides decreased as the delay in application approached eight weeks after harvest. A program of orchard calcium chloride followed by pre-harvest fungicide treatments can reduce overall decay incidence and mitigate the consequences of delays in postharvest fungicide treatment.

Non-conventional methods for the control of post-harvest pear diseases.

Pears are highly perishable products, especially during the post-harvest phase, when considerable losses can occur. Among the fungal diseases, blue mold caused by Penicillium expansum, grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea, Mucor rot caused by Mucor piriformis are common on pear fruits. Other (weak) pathogens like Phialophora malorum, Alternaria spp., and Cladosporium herbarum tend to infect wounds and senescent fruits. A post-harvest fungicide treatment can reduce decay but effectiveness decreases with the appearance of resistant strains. There is a clear need to develop new and alternative methods of controlling post-harvest diseases. The emerging technologies for the control of post-harvest fungal diseases are essentially threefold: application of antagonistic microorganisms, application of natural antimicrobial substances and application of sanitizing products. Two biological control products, Aspire (Candida oleophila I-182) (Ecogen, Langhorne, PA, USA) and Bio-Save 110 (Pseudomonas syringae) (EcoScience, Worcester, MA, USA; formerly Bio-Save 11) are currently registered in the USA for post-harvest application to pears. Other potential biocontrol agents have been isolated from fruit and shown to suppress post-harvest decay in pear. It is important that evaluation of these microorganisms be carried out in a product formulation because the formulation may improve or diminish antagonistic efficacy depending on the concentration of chemical product and the duration of exposure to the treatment. Plants produce a large number of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial effects on post-harvest pathogens. Detailed studies have been conducted on aromatic compounds, essential oils, volatile substances and isothiocyanates, with encouraging results. In particular, allyl-isothiocyanate used as a volatile substance, controls blue mould in 'Conference' and 'Kaiser' pear inoculated with a thiabendazole-resistant strain. Sanitizing products such as chlorine dioxide, peracetic acid and ozone have considerable fungicidal activity against P. expansum and M. piriformis, depending on the concentration of chemical product and the duration of exposure to the treatment. Sanitizing solutions can be integrated easily with current handling and storage practices; however, further research is required to define the effective procedures better.

Integration of Ultraviolet (UV-C) Light with Yeast Treatment for Control of Postharvest Storage Rots of Fruits and Vegetables

Applications of low doses of ultraviolet light-C (254 nm, UV-C), UV-C in combination with a biocontrol agent, Debaryomyces hansenii, or postharvest fungicides were compared for their ability to reduce the incidences of brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola of peach, green mold ( Penicillium digitatum ) of tangerine, and Rhizopus soft rot ( Rhizopus stolonifer ) of tomato and sweetpotato that resulted from both field infections and artificial inoculations. UV-C light alone reduced the incidence of storage rots of all produce. However, in general, application of the postharvest fungicide benomyl (Benlate 50 DF; methyl-1-(butyl-carbomoyl)-2-benzimidazole carbamate) or dichloran (Botran 75WP; 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline) was more effective than UV-C treatment alone. When the produce were treated with D. hansenii 2 to 3 days after UV-C treatment, the reduction of storage rots was better than when UV-C was used alone. The percentage of brown rot infection of “Elberta” peaches 36 h after artificial inoculation were untreated control, 100%; UV-C alone, 55%; D. hansenii alone, 67%; UV-C + D. hansenii, 12%; and benomyl alone (12%). Because the efficacy of UV-C + D. hansenii was comparable to that of the postharvest fungicide used alone, it is indicated that an integration of UV-C with the yeast treatment can be as effective as commercial postharvest fungicide treatment in reducing storage rots. Thus, integrated treatment with UV-C and the biocontrol agent (yeast) has potential as an alternative means of postharvest disease control.

Pathology and control of soil-borne fungal pathogens of potato

Several soil-borne fungal pathogens continue to cause problems in potato production worldwide. The reasons for these problems are illustrated by reference to the pathogensVerticillium dahliae, Rhizoctonia solani, Spongospora subterranea and a group normally considered to be tuber-borne, includingColletotrichum coccodes, Helminthosporium solani andFusarium species. Generally, the long-term persistence of survival structures, the difficulties in reducing inoculum and lack of good sources of resistance hinder attempts to improve control of soil-borne fungal pathogens. Post-harvest fungicide treatment of seed or ware potatoes does not entirely alleviate storage problems. In the foreseeable future there is no alternative to the use of integrated measures from the time of planting seed to movement from storage. Key research areas that arise as a means of better controlling most of these pathogens are: the role of intraspecific variation in pathogenesis and ecology, problems of detecting and quantifying inoculum, and the need for improved methods for biological control.

APPLICATION OF UV-C AND BIO-CONTROL AGENT STRATEGIES TO CONTROL ROT OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

Applying low doses of ultraviolet light (254 nm, W-C) reduces the incidence of brown rot of (Monilinia fructicola) peaches, green mold (Penicillium digitatum) of tangerines, and Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) of tomatoes and sweetpotatoes resulting from field infection and artificial inoculation. In most studies, applying postharvest fungicide (PF) was better than W-C treatment. In this study, the effectiveness of combining a biocontrol agent, Debaryomyces hansenii (BC), with low UV-C dose for postharvest disease control was investigated. When these commodities were treated with BC 3 days after W-C treatment, the reduction of storage rots was more effective than when UV-C was used alone. For example, the percent brown rot infection of artificially inoculated Elberta peaches 36 hours after inoculation of the nontreated control, peaches treated with UV-C, BC, W-C + BC, and benlate were 100%, 55%, 67%, 12%, and 12%, respectively. The efficacy of W-C + BC was similar to when PF was used alone, indicating that an integration of UV-C treatment and BC can reduce storage rot to the levels of commercial PF treatment.

Tolerance of Penicillium expansum to postharvest fungicide treatments in apple packingshouses in Lerida (Spain)

Thiabendazole tolerant isolates of Penicillium expansum were recovered from sampling of natural spore populations in storage rooms and partially decayed apples collected from packinghouses in Lerida (Spain). The parasitic fitness of the resistant population of Penicillium expansum was studied.

Effects of several postharvest fungicide treatments on the quality and ripeness of cold-stored apples

Les pommes (Starking et Golden Delicious) sont traitees au benzimidazole et a l'imazalil avant stockage frigorifique. La texture des fruits traites ou non est semblable. La teneur en acide ascorbique ainsi que l'acidite totale sont plus elevees dans les pommes traites. Le traitement fongicide ameliore la maturation

Effect of several post-harvest fungicide treatments on carbohydrate evolution of cold stored apples

Post-harvest fungicide treatments were used to preserve ‘Starking’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ apples during cold storage. The fungicide compounds utilized in the experiment were benomyl, carbendazim, imazalil, thiophanatemethyl and thiabendazole. Treatments were by immersion of some fruits into fungicide aqueous solutions at recommended concentrations and immersion times. Determination of the most important carbohydrates in apples (sucrose, fructose, glucose as well as sorbitol) was by high performance liquid chromatography. Post-harvest fungicide treatments have caused an increase in carbohydrate content of fruits relative to the untreated apples of the same cultivar and an important improvement in their ripening. Apples treated with imazalil showed greater dehydration and excessive wrinkling of fruit peel.

Contamination byPolyscytalum pustulans andPhoma exigua var.foveata of seed stocks derived from stem cuttings in Scotland

The incidence ofPolyscytalum pustulans andPhoma exigua var.foveata on virus-tested stocks of seed potatoes derived from stem cuttings (VTSC) was assessed on samples from more than 15 commercial farms in Scotland from 1974 to 1978. Lower class seed stocks (FS3 and AA1) were also examined in 1978 in relation to the region of Scotland in which they were grown. P. pustulans was detected on tubers grown at the DAFS nuclear stock farm only in 1977 butP. exigua var.foveata was present at very low levels in most years. Contamination by both pathogens was much greater on clones grown on commercial VTSC farms than on the DAFS nuclear stock farm. Both fungi were more prevalent on tubers after the third year of multiplication than on those of second year clones. While there was variation between farms in the amount of tuber contamination of VTSC stocks, contamination was reduced considerably by an annual post harvest fungicide treatment. The incidence ofP. pustulans was largely unaffected by the geographical location of the farms.P. exigua var.foveata was more prevalent in the northern counties of Scotland than in Angus, Perth, Fife and Kinross. This difference was not related to either date of haulm destruction or interval between haulm destruction and lifting.

‘Jessie M. Conner’ Gladiolus1

Abstract Gladiolus (G. hortulanus L. H. Bailey), when planted in landscapes, offer a variety of flower colors and shapes found in few cultivated plants. Unfortunately, use of gladiolus in the home landscape has diminished dramatically over the past 20 years. A major contributor to this decline has been the emphasis in breeding programs to develop exhibition flowers with long thin stems and numerous florets, qualities not desired in a landscape plant. When used in the home garden, the modern cultivars have to be staked and tied or they collapse and break during adverse weather conditions. Another factor in the decline of gladiolus has been the disease susceptibility to Fusarium (F oxysporum f. sp. gladioli Snyd. & Hans.) corm and root rot. Without fumigation of the soil and pre-plant and postharvest fungicide treatments of the corms, most cultivars will have only a maximum garden life of 2-3 years. A garden cultivar, in addition to disease tolerance, should possess a strong root system, a strong, straight spike, and a rachis with at least 14 florets. Plants should be vigorous, self-perpetuating, and easily propagated. ‘Jessie M. Conner’ (Fig. 1) possesses all of these qualities.