Post-facial Palsy Synkinesis Research Articles

The Effectiveness of Facial Neuromuscular Retraining on Patients with Facial Nerve Dysfunction: A Mental Health and Quality of Life Analysis.

Background: Facial muscle dysfunction can have drastic psychosocial effects. Objectives: To evaluate the impacts of customized neuromuscular retraining on mental health, quality of life (QoL), facial muscle function, and synkinesis. Methods: Thirty patients with facial nerve dysfunction completed a course of neuromuscular retraining. Patients' mental health, QoL, facial muscle function, and synkinesis were evaluated using Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Facial Clinimetric Evaluation (FaCE) scale, electronic, clinician-graded facial function scale (eFACE), and Synkinesis Assessment Questionnaire (SAQ) at the initial and final visits. Scores were compared before and after treatment. Results: Patients (n = 30) included had a mean age of 59.4 ± 13.4 years (range 32.3-82.8) and were mostly female (22/30, 73.3%). The most common etiology was Iatrogenic facial nerve paralysis (11/20, 36.7%). Most patients had postfacial paralysis synkinesis (15/30, 50%), while 10 had complete flaccid paralysis. The median house-Brackmann score was 2 (range 1-6). The mean duration of facial palsy was 39.5 ± 106.9 (range 1-576 months). The duration of follow-up after the initial treatment session was 5.5 months, including 10 sessions. After neuromuscular retraining median PHQ-9 scores improved from 5 (range 0-25) to 3 (range 0-20) (p = 0.002). Mean FaCE PROM scores increased from 47.7 ± 11.5 to 56.5 ± 8.8 (p = 0.001). The mean eFACE score increased from 55.8 ± 15.1 to 71.7 ± 13.6 (p < 0.001). Median SAQ score was lower at the final visit (34.6 ± 13.4) compared to the initial visit (47.7 ± 17.8; p < 0.001). Conclusion: Customized neuromuscular retraining may improve patient-reported mental health, QoL, and facial muscle function and reduce synkinesis in facial nerve dysfunction.

Chemodenervation Algorithm: Functional and Aesthetic Considerations for Facial Harmony in Patients with Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis.

Management of post-facial paralysis synkinesis has evolved for the past decade with diversification of neuromuscular retraining, chemodenervation, and advanced surgical reanimation techniques. Chemodenervation with botulinum toxin-A is a commonly used treatment modality for synkinesis patients. Treatment has shifted from solely weakening the unaffected contralateral facial musculature for rote symmetry to selective reduction of undesired or overactive synkinetic muscles, allowing for a more organized motion of the recovered musculature. Facial neuromuscular retraining should be considered a crucial component of treating patients with synkinesis along with soft tissue mobilization, but specifics of these are beyond the scope of this article. Our goal was to create a descriptive platform for our method of chemodenervation treatment in the evolving field of post-facial paralysis synkinesis. A multi-institutional and multidisciplinary comparison of techniques was performed with photograph and video creation, review, and discussion over an electronic platform with all authors. Anatomic specifics of each region of the face and individual muscles were considered. A muscle by muscle algorithm for synkinesis therapy was created to include chemodenervation with botulinum toxin that should be considered for patients suffering from post-facial paralysis synkinesis.

Commentary on: "Chemodenervation Algorithm: Functional and Aesthetic Considerations for Facial Harmony in Patients with Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis," by Hetzler et al.

In this commentary, we discuss Hetzler et al.'s article, "Chemodenervation Algorithm: Functional and Aesthetic Considerations for Facial Harmony in Patients with Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis." The authors do an excellent job of presenting a guide for practitioners to use when initiating chemodenervation treatment for patients with nonflaccid facial paralysis. Standardization of outcome assessment tools and rigorous data collection will further refine treatment algorithms.

Reply to Nduka et al. Comment on "Kehrer et al. Using High-Resolution Ultrasound to Assess Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis-Machine Settings and Technical Aspects for Facial Surgeons. Diagnostics 2022, 12, 1650".

We thank Dr. Nduka et al. for this interesting article [...].

Comment on Kehrer et al. Using High-Resolution Ultrasound to Assess Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis-Machine Settings and Technical Aspects for Facial Surgeons. Diagnostics 2022, 12, 1650.

In "Using High-Resolution Ultrasound to Assess Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis-Machine Settings and Technical Aspects for Facial Surgeons", Andreas Kehrer et al. present ultrasound (US) device settings for facial muscle examination to be used by facial surgeons to improve their workflow and enhance their image quality [...].

Therapeutic Approach to Botulinum Injections for Hemifacial Spasm, Synkinesis and Blepharospasm.

The aim of this study was to show our therapeutic outcome of botulinum injection to the facial muscles and thereby to find the best therapeutic concept which should be embraced. The decision to treat the lower eyelid with 1-point or 2-points injection was randomly taken as there is no consensus regarding this debate. Injections of the lateral end of the upper eyelid were performed more laterally to the conventional injection point, just lateral to the conjunction of the upper and lower eyelids. Twenty-three patients (12 hemifacial spasm, 6 blepharospasm, 5 post facial palsy synkinesis) were enrolled. Data were retrieved from 112 visits between 2019 and 2022. Overall, 84.9% of the treatments had moderate or marked improvement. The most common side effect was facial weakness (11.8%). Neither ptosis nor diplopia were noted. Two-points regimen in the lower eyelid was associated with a lower risk of facial weakness (p = 0.01), compared to 1-point regimen, with a better therapeutic outcome as reflected by more favorable PGI-C scores (p = 0.04). Injection of the pretarsal segment of the upper eyelid, just onto or even lateral to the conjunction of the upper and lower eyelids, lowers the risk of ptosis.

Advances and future directions in the care of patients with facial paralysis

Advances and future directions in the care of patients with facial paralysis

Tracking whole-brain connectivity dynamics in the resting-state fMRI with post-facial paralysis synkinesis

BackgroundResting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) is widely applied to explore abnormal functional connectivity (FC) in patients with post-facial paralysis synkinesis (PFPS). However, most studies considered steady spatial-temporal signal interactions between distinct brain regions during the period of scanning. ObjectiveIn this study, we aim to investigate abnormal dynamic functional connectivity (dFC) in PFPS patients. MethodsWe enrolled 31 PFPS patients and 19 healthy controls. All participants underwent rs-fMRI. Sliding windows approach was applied to construct dFC matrices. Next, these matrices were clustered into distinct states using the k-means clustering algorithm. ResultsWe found that it was not the dFC patterns, but rather the temporal properties including the mean dwell time (MDT) and occurrence frequencies, that showed a significant difference between PFPS patients and healthy controls. Two randomly clustered dFC states were recognized for both groups. Among them, State 1 showed significantly lower connectivity compared to State 2 in patients group. Compared to healthy controls, the duration spent by the PFPS patients in the state with lower connectivity significantly increased and is positively correlated with the better facial function. ConclusionsIn conclusion, aberrant dFC is a fundamental feature of brain dysfunction in PFPS patients, which is associated with the facial nerve function. These findings may contribute to a better understanding of the abnormal brain reorganization mechanisms in PFPS patients.

Quality of Life Outcomes After Modified Selective Neurectomy for Postfacial Paralysis Synkinesis.

Background: Until now, quality of life (QOL) outcomes after modified selective neurectomy for postfacial paralysis synkinesis (PFPS) have not been assessed. Objective: To evaluate QOL outcomes among patients with PFPS who underwent modified selective neurectomy. Methods: The medical records of patients aged ≥18 years with PFPS who underwent modified selective neurectomy during a 6-year period were reviewed. QOL outcomes were measured using the Facial Clinimetric Evaluation (FaCE) scale and Synkinesis Assessment Questionnaire (SAQ). Results: At <1 year after selective neurectomy, there was improvement in mean SAQ (from 26.6 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 23.7-29.5] to 21.4 [95% CI, 19.5-23.3]; p < 0.0001). Mean FaCE scores improved (from 47.1 [95% CI, 43.6-50.6] to 62.6 [95% CI, 58.7-66.5]; p < 0.0001), with improvements in all subscores except lacrimal control scores (from 61.7 [95% CI, 52.6-70.9] to 62.2 [95% CI, 53.6-70.9]; p = 0.91). At >1 year after surgery, there was improvement in mean SAQ score (from 28.8 [95% CI, 26.0-31.6] to 23.4 [95% CI, 21.0-25.7]; p < 0.0001). Mean FaCE scores improved (from 45.9 [95% CI, 41.6-50.3] to 59.4 [95% CI, 53.6-65.2]; p < 0.0001), with improvements in all subscores except eye comfort and lacrimal control (from 52.4 [95% CI, -40.8-64.0] to 56.8 [95% CI, 45.5-68.0]; p = 0.36), and lacrimal control scores worsened (from 68.0 [95% CI, 56.7-79.2] to 56.3 [95% CI, 44.8-67.7]; p = 0.023). Conclusions: Modified selective neurectomy results in QOL improvements in patients with PFPS.

Alteration of spatial patterns at the network-level in facial synkinesis: an independent component and connectome analysis.

BackgroundThe treatment of post-facial palsy synkinesis (PFPS) remains inadequate. Previous studies have confirmed that brain plasticity is involved in the process of functional restoration. Isolated activation has been well studied, however, the brain works as an integrity of several isolated regions. This study aimed to assess the alteration of the brain network topology with overall and local characteristics of information dissemination. Understanding the neural mechanisms of PFPS could help to improve therapy options and prognosis.MethodsPatients with facial synkinesis and healthy controls (HCs) were estimated using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of resting-state. Subsequently, an independent component analysis (ICA) was used to extract four subnets from the whole brain. Then we used the measurements of graph theory and calculated in the whole-brain network and each sub-network.ResultsWe found no significant difference between the patient group and the HCs on the whole-brain scale. Then we identified four subnetworks from the resting-state data. In the sub-network property analysis, patients’ locally distributed properties in the sensorimotor network (SMN) and ventral default mode network (vDMN) were reduced. It revealed that γ (10,000 permutations, P=0.048) and S (10,000 permutations, P=0.022) within the SMN progressively decreased in patients with PFPS. For the analysis of vDMN, significant differences were found in γ (10,000 permutations, P=0.019), Elocal (10,000 permutations, P=0.008), and β (10,000 permutations, P=0.011) between the groups.ConclusionsOur results demonstrated a reduction in local network processing efficiency in patients with PFPS. Therefore, we speculate that decreased characteristics in the intra-vDMN and intra-SMN, rather than the whole-brain network, may serve distinct symptoms such as facial nerve damage or more synkinetic movements. This finding of the alteration of network properties is a small step forward to help uncover the underlying mechanism.

Long-Term Changes in the Treatment Pattern of Botulinum Toxin A Injections for Postfacial Paralysis Synkinesis Following Modified Selective Neurectomy.

Long-Term Changes in the Treatment Pattern of Botulinum Toxin A Injections for Postfacial Paralysis Synkinesis Following Modified Selective Neurectomy.

Synkinetic Unilateral Lower Lip Palsy: Diagnosis and Technical Considerations for Facial Reanimation.

Importance: There are no universally adopted surgical techniques to treat depressor labii inferioris (DLI) dysfunction in patients with postfacial paralysis synkinesis. We describe a novel description of this disorder and technical surgical considerations for reanimation. Objective: To describe a new classification for DLI dysfunction and a surgical option to restore a natural appearing full dentition smile. Design: Surgical pearls-description of novel surgical technique. Setting: A private practice. Participants: Patients who underwent the operation.

Diagnosis of primary hemifacial spasm

The diagnosis of primary hemifacial spasm (pHFS), due to a benign compression of the facial motor nerve by a vessel, within or close to its root exit zone, is often made with delay. Misdiagnosis includes psychogenic spasm, tics, facial myokymia or blepharospasm, but in fact post-facial palsy synkinesis (post-paralytic HFS) is the closest clinical condition, because it is limited to the territory of the facial nerve of a single hemiface. The differential diagnosis between these two entities, whose pathophysiological mechanisms are very different, can be made by electroneuromyographic (ENMG) examination. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is essential to show the offending vessel at the origin of pHFS and the absence of other causes of nerve compression. However, the diagnosis cannot be made on MRI basis alone, since a neurovascular conflict can be present in clinically asymptomatic subjects. This article reviews the clinical, MRI, and ENMG features in favour of a pHFS diagnosis as well as the various differential diagnoses of this involuntary facial movement disorder.

An objective assessment of botulinum toxin type A injection in the treatment of post-facial palsy synkinesis and hyperkinesis using the synkinesis assessment questionnaire

This study aimed to provide reliable and valid evidence that botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) is a successful treatment for facial synkinesis in facial palsy by using the synkinesis assessment questionnaire (SAQ) tool. Fifty-one patients completed questionnaires pre- and post-BTX-A treatment over 103 cycles of treatment. Each patient was individually assessed and then treated according to their presenting symptoms with a dosage in each injection site of between 0.5 and 5U of BTX-A. A two-tailed paired samples t-test was used to compare the scores for each question before and after treatment. A significant difference was found between all scores before and after treatment at the level of p<0.05. There was not only an improvement in the mean score in the post-treatment group but also a smaller spread of scores in the post-treatment group than in the pre-treatment group. The study showed that SAQ scores decreased significantly for every question on the SAQ after treatment. This indicates that BTX-A is an effective treatment for synkinesis, adding further weight to current evidence. The study also indicated that BTX-A continues to be effective even after three rounds of treatment, with a significant decrease in overall scores after each treatment cycle.

Complications of botulinum toxin application: differences between hemifacial spasm and post-facial palsy synkinesis

Dear Editor,Although hemifacial spasm (HFS) and post-facial palsysynkinesis (PFPS) are two different entities with differentunderlying causes, both share an effective treatment option:botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). Its mechanism is temporaryblocking of the presynaptic release of acetylcholine inneuromuscular junction which lasts 3–6 months [1].Herein, we report the complications of BoNT use in HFSand PFPS.A retrospective analysis was conducted using themedical records of well documented 30 HFS and 20PFPS patients. Botilinum toxin A (Botox ) was recon-stituted with 2 ml of preservative free 0.9 % salinesolution to yield toxin in a concentration of 5 units per0.1 ml. Selected muscles were orbicularis oculi, corru-gator supercilii, frontalis in superior facial area, zygom-aticus, orbicularis oris, mentalis in middle and inferiorfacial area. Statistical analysis was performed usingMann–Whitney U test.Hemifacial spasm group consisted of 17 females and 3males with a mean age of 47 ± 11 years. The meanduration of symptoms was 17 ± 8 months. In threepatients a dolicho-ectatic basilar artery was founded on thesymptomatic side in brain magnetic resonance imaging. Allthe patients received 3–9 BoNT injections. Mean BoNTdose was 66 ± 56 U. Of HFS patients, 34 % developedcomplications: ptosis 24 % and orbicularis oris paralysis10 %.Post-facial palsy synkinesis group consisted of 18females and 2 males with a mean age of 59.3 ± 12 years.The mean duration of symptoms was 19 ± 8 months. Amedical history of Bell’s palsy was present in 12 patients.All of the patients received 3–7 BoNT injections. MeanBoNT dose was 53 ± 24 U. Complications occurred in77 % of PFPS patients consecutively: ptosis 33 %, dry eye-lagophthalmos 11 %, orbicularis oris paralysis 11 %, eyeand mouth complications together 22 %. The difference ofcomplication rates between the two groups was statisticallysignificant (p:0.04).Based on our results, it appears that complications ofBoNT are more frequent in PFPS. This may be due to theprevious muscle weakness and axonal damage in PFPS [2].In conclusion, choosing hyperactive muscle for injectionsand lower doses of BoNT in PFPS may reduce complica-tion ratios.

Therapeutic strategies in post-facial paralysis synkinesis in pediatric patients

Synkinetic movements comprise abnormal involuntary contractions of one or more facial muscle groups which follow the desired contraction of another facial muscle group. They are frequently encountered in patients with long standing facial paralysis and seriously affect their psychological status due to the impairment of their facial appearance, function and emotional expressivity. Eleven pediatric patients (2 male and 9 female) presenting with post-facial paralysis synkinesis were included in the study. Mean age was 10.3±4 years and mean denervation time 72.5 months. Patients underwent the following types of treatment: --Cross facial nerve grafting (CFNG) and secondary microcoaptations with botulinum toxin injection which had an improvement of 100% (3 in the 3 grade synkinesis scale) (n=2). --Cross facial nerve grafting (CFNG) and secondary microcoaptations without botulinum toxin injection which had an improvement of 66%(2 in the 3 grade synkinesis scale) (n=5). --CFNG and direct muscle neurotization with (n=2) or without (n=1) botulinum toxin injection where the improvement was 33%. --Contralateral nasalis muscle myectomy was performed in one patient along with CFNG and secondary microcoaptations which resulted in 66% synkinesis improvement. Biofeedback was invariably undertaken by all patients. Postoperative improvement in eye closure and smile was also noted in the respective cases treated for synkinesis ranging from 25 to 50%, with all patients achieving optimum functional return. CFNG with secondary microcoaptations and botulinum toxin injections was found to be a very efficient surgical modality addressing post-facial palsy synkinesis with high improvement in facial function and symmetry. Facial neuromuscular re-education contributes considerably in the treatment.

Excitability of facial nucleus and related brain-stem reflexes in hemifacial spasm, post-facial palsy synkinesis and facial myokymia

Objective To compare the electrophysiological excitability characteristics of the facial nucleus and related structures in hemifacial spasm (HFS), post-facial palsy synkinesis (PFPS) and facial myokymia (FM). Methods Facial F-waves, blink reflex recoveries and magnetically elicited silent periods (SP) were prospectively studied in 17 HFS, 17 PFPS, 8 FM cases and in 13 controls. Earlier unpublished observations on abnormal impulse transmission in 36 HFS and 29 PFPS cases were also included. Results Enhanced F-waves were recorded on the symptomatic side in PFPS and HFS cases with a tendency to be more pronounced in PFPS. HFS and PFPS groups both showed an earlier blink reflex recovery, more prominent in PFPS patients, when stimulated and/or recorded on the symptomatic side. Unelicitable SPs were encountered after 24/39 stimulations in 5 patients with PFPS and rarely in HFS cases. Duration of elicitable SPs did not change remarkably. FM group had similar characteristics as normal controls in the 3 electrophysiological tests. Latencies of the lateral and synkinetic spread responses were significantly prolonged in the earlier PFPS group as compared to HFS. In two-point stimulation, both groups showed a greater latency shift in late responses, again more pronounced in PFPS. Conclusions PFPS and HFS cases had similar enhanced excitability patterns at the facial nucleus and related brain-stem structures, more marked on the symptomatic side and more obvious in the PFPS group. Findings elicited in the FM group were thought to be caused by asynchronous hyperactivity of facial motoneurons. Significance In this comparative electrophysiological study, similar excitability patterns were found in HFS and PFPS groups, albeit with different intensities.

EMG guided treatment of painful legs, moving toes wdith botulinum toxin A

To compare the electrophysiological excitability characteristics of the facial nucleus and related structures in hemifacial spasm (HFS), post-facial palsy synkinesis (PFPS) and facial myokymia (FM).Facial F-waves, blink reflex recoveries and magnetically elicited silent periods (SP) were prospectively studied in 17 HFS, 17 PFPS, 8 FM cases and in 13 controls. Earlier unpublished observations on abnormal impulse transmission in 36 HFS and 29 PFPS cases were also included.Enhanced F-waves were recorded on the symptomatic side in PFPS and HFS cases with a tendency to be more pronounced in PFPS. HFS and PFPS groups both showed an earlier blink reflex recovery, more prominent in PFPS patients, when stimulated and/or recorded on the symptomatic side. Unelicitable SPs were encountered after 24/39 stimulations in 5 patients with PFPS and rarely in HFS cases. Duration of elicitable SPs did not change remarkably. FM group had similar characteristics as normal controls in the 3 electrophysiological tests. Latencies of the lateral and synkinetic spread responses were significantly prolonged in the earlier PFPS group as compared to HFS. In two-point stimulation, both groups showed a greater latency shift in late responses, again more pronounced in PFPS.PFPS and HFS cases had similar enhanced excitability patterns at the facial nucleus and related brain-stem structures, more marked on the symptomatic side and more obvious in the PFPS group. Findings elicited in the FM group were thought to be caused by asynchronous hyperactivity of facial motoneurons.In this comparative electrophysiological study, similar excitability patterns were found in HFS and PFPS groups, albeit with different intensities.

Magnetic stimulation in hemifacial spasm and post–facial palsy synkinesis

The facial nerve was stimulated trascranially with a magnetic stimulator in 14 normal controls, 14 hemifacial spasm patients, and 16 post-facial-palsy synkinesis patients. Magnetic stimulation in normal controls revealed muscle responses which had latencies with a mean value of 4.99 +/- 0.49 ms and amplitudes of 2.41 +/- 1.08 mV. In the same group, transosseal conduction time was calculated to be 1.20 +/- 0.13 ms. In the hemifacial spasm group, the amplitudes of the responses on the affected sides were lower as compared to the unaffected sides (mean values 1.78 vs. 2.41 mV, P = 0.01). Also, the threshold to magnetic stimulation was elevated on the affected sides. These findings are suggestive of the presence of a hypoexcitability to magnetic stimulation in the root entry zone. In the post-facial-palsy synkinesis patients, magnetic stimulation of the affected sides resulted in responses with long latencies and low amplitudes (mean latency 6.34 ms, mean amplitude 0.90 mV). In the recordings made with magnetic stimulation, the difference of the latencies between the two sides was larger as compared to those obtained by electrical stimulation. The transosseal conduction time was also remarkably prolonged on the affected side. These findings may suggest that magnetic stimulation can be an effective method of showing intracranially located lesions of the facial nerve.