Post-disaster Events Research Articles

An analysis of measures to combat the risk of economic crime associated with post-disaster funding in South Africa

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse the measures that could be taken to combat the risk of economic crime in the aftermath of South African disasters. Design/methodology/approach This paper used secondary sources including, but not limited to, institutional reports, newspaper articles and peer-reviewed academic journal articles. Findings The COVID-19 pandemic was used as an example in this paper to discuss the susceptibility of post-disaster funding to the risk of economic crime and to assess how the South African government attempted to combat this risk during the pandemic. The Auditor-General of South Africa (AGSA) conducted a real-time audit of the government’s essential COVID-19 initiatives in collaboration with the newly established Fusion Centre. Through their collaborative efforts, they successfully identified mismanaged funds, facilitated the recovery thereof and prosecuted individuals and entities involved. This paper found that to proactively combat economic crime in future post-disaster events, the collaborative use of the AGSA and the Fusion Centre, in conjunction with existing bodies established under the Disaster Management Act, should be considered. Originality/value This paper contributes to the body of knowledge in disaster risk management and forensic accountancy. As the frequency of disasters is expected to increase in the future, so will the economic crime risk associated with post-disaster funding. This paper demonstrates that post-disaster funding is especially susceptible to the risk of economic crime and it is therefore important to research methods to combat this problem and prevent further losses.

Transportation bridge infrastructure asset condition monitoring using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs)

The optimal performance of a road transportation network depends on the serviceability and reliability of bridges connecting the pavements. Bridge performance depends on several geotechnical assets among which abutments play a key role as they support the bridge span, and transfer the vertical and horizontal loads from the superstructure to the foundation. Soil abutments are designed to be stable against overturning and sliding and prevent differential settlement and excessive lateral movements. In the United States, 42 % of bridges are observed to be over 50 years old. Department of Transportation (DOT) agencies periodically monitor and assess the bridge conditions typically every two years. Due to the costs and the time involved in conducting inspections using traditional data collection tools, DOTs are exploring innovative technologies to conduct inspections and realize benefits in terms of access, cost, and safety. They have widely adopted the use of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) for structural health monitoring of bridges. A few studies also conducted 360⁰ bridge inspections using camera sensors mounted on UAVs in the recent past. In this current study, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) guidelines for commercial use of drones were discussed and followed in field studies. Further, UAVs were demonstrated for conducting 360° bridge inspections and identifying the erosion near abutments using three-dimensional models. This paper presents the application of innovative technologies for geotechnical assessments of two bridges in the Alaska region, with a focus on assessing the need for rehabilitation measures. These new technologies have become essential for reliable condition monitoring post-disaster events as well. This approach is expected to benefit the agencies in managing the transportation geotechnical assets in a timely and cost-effective manner.

Thermal, Multispectral, and RGB Vision Systems Analysis for Victim Detection in SAR Robotics

Technological advancements have facilitated the development of sophisticated vision systems, integrating optical sensors with artificial vision and machine learning techniques to create applications in different fields of robotics. One such field is Search and Rescue (SAR) robotics, which has historically played a significant role in assisting brigades following post-disaster events, particularly in exploration phases and, crucially, in victim identification. The importance of employing these systems in victim identification lies in their functionality under challenging conditions, enabling the capture of information across different light spectrum ranges (RGB, Thermal, Multispectral). This article proposes an innovative comparative analysis that scrutinizes the advantages and limitations of three sensor types in victim detection. It explores contemporary developments in the state-of-the-art and proposes new metrics addressing critical aspects, such as functionality in specific scenarios and the analysis of environmental disturbances. For the indoor and outdoor testing phase, a quadrupedal robot has been equipped with these cameras. The primary findings highlight the individual contributions of each sensor, particularly emphasizing the efficacy of the infrared spectrum for the thermal camera and the Near Infrared and Red Edge bands for the multispectral camera. Ultimately, following system evaluations, detection precisions exceeding 92% and 86%, respectively, were achieved.

Energy efficient gateway based routing with maximized node coverage in a UAV assisted wireless sensor network.

Ad-hoc wireless sensor networks face challenges of optimized node deployment for maximizing coverage and efficiently routing data to control centers in post disaster events. These challenges impact the outcome for extending the lifetime of wireless sensor networks. This study presents a uav assisted reactive zone based EHGR (energy efficient hierarchical gateway routing protocol) that is deployed in a situation where the natural calamity has caused communication and infrastructure damage to a major portion of the sensor network. EHGR is a hybrid multi layer routing protocol for large heterogeneous sensor nodes (smart nodes, basic nodes, user handheld devices etc.) EHGR is tailored to meet two important concerns for a disaster hit wsn ie. optimized deployment and energy efficient routing. The first part of EGHR focuses on maximized coverage during node deployments. Maximized coverage is an important aspect to be considered during the event of disaster since most of the nodes loose coverage and are detached from the wireless sensor network. The first part of EHGR uses state of the art game theory approach to build a model that maximizes the coverage of nodes during the deployment phase from all participating entities i.e. nodes and uavs. Rather than fixing the cluster head as is the case in traditional cluster-based approaches EHGR uses the energy centroid nodes. Energy centroid nodes evolve on the basis of aggregated energy of the zone. This approach is superior to simply electing cluster head nodes on the basis of some probability function. The nodes that fail to achieve any successful outcome from the game theory matching model fail to get any association. These nodes will use multi hop d2d relay approach to reach the energy centroid nodes. Gateway relay nodes used with the game theory approach during the deployment of the uav assisted wsn improves the overall coverage by 25% against traditional leach based hierarchical approaches. Once the optimum deployment phase is completed the routing phase is initiated. Aggregated data is sent by the energy centroid nodes from the ECN nodes to the servicing micro controller enabled un manned aerial vehicles. The routing process places partial burden of zone formation and data transmission to the control center for each phase on the servicing uavs. Energy centroid nodes engage only in the data aggregation process and transmission of data to servicing uav. Servicing-uavs reduce energy dissipated of the entire zone which result in gradual decrease of energy for the zone thus increasing the network lifetime. Node deployment phase and the routing phase of EHGR utilize the computations provide by the mirco controller enabled unmanned aerial vehicles such that the computationally intensive calculations are offloaded to the servicing uav. Experiment results indicate an increase in the first dead node report, half dead node report, and last dead node report. Network lifetime is extended to approximately 1800 rounds which is an increase by ratio of 100% against the traditional leach approach and increase by 50% percent against the latest approaches as highlighted in the literature.

Hospital resilience to extreme events: A staff capability of attendance perspective

The increasing frequency of natural hazards continues to stretch the operation of hospital services. Hospitals are expected to remain fully operational during and in the immediate aftermath of hazards to serve those who need healthcare. Despite the substantial research work on preparedness, hospitals still vulnerable and, in many cases, incapable of responding adequately due to issues such as damage to infrastructure and shortage of staff. Substantial research work was conducted on staff willingness to attend workplace; however, little work was able to ascertain the actual capability of staff to attend. This study aims to evaluate the capability of hospital staff to attend their workplace regardless of their backgrounds, jobs, and levels, making it a more accurate representation of the natural operation of hospitals. It contributes to the healthcare resilience body of knowledge, specifically related to hospital staff attendance during and post-disaster events. Data was collected through a questionnaire survey distributed to 1841 hospital staff members from different departments. Results show that the decision to attend the duty during or post-disaster event involves many complex personal and professional factors that can change, depending on the type of disaster, working environment preparedness and the personal responsibilities of the staff. Dependency, travel, training, and mental health in addition to age and work experience influence the capability to staff attend hospital post disasters. Findings established each of hospital's departments, services and professions play a key role in the provision of healthcare service no matter their backgrounds, role, and hierarchical levels.

VULNERABLE HOUSEHOLDS IN FLOOD-PRONE COMMUNITIES IN IBADAN: MEASURES TO IMPROVE THEIR STATUS WITHIN THE INCLUSIVE IBADAN CITY FRAMEWORK

The study assesses the impact of the last major flood disaster in Ibadan on the vulnerable groups (the poor, elderly, children and physically challenged). It investigates how vulnerable HHs have responded to post-disaster events. The study finds that HHs from 56% of the affected buildings suffered temporary displacement and 207 (7.4%) of the affected buildings were abandoned with Ibadan South-West LGA recording the highest cases of abandonment (23%). There exists a positive correlation between income and period of displacement (r=0.26) and a significant difference in the period of displacement across income groups. The study reveals disparities in access to relief/recovery items among the flood-affected populations. Urban dwellers had better access to relief packages than rural dwellers.

Critical success factors for managing post-disaster reconstruction projects: the case of Angola

Although some studies have been carried out on project management of “typical” construction projects, little work has been done on what makes Post-Disaster Reconstruction Projects (PDRPs) successful. This paper analyses the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for implementation of PDRPs in Angola. The paper adopted a survey and interviews. Data was collected from project participants within the ministry of planning, provincial government office of planning and local government in Angola. A questionnaire with closed questions was completed by 130 survey respondents. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 7 practitioners selected through purposive sampling. The findings indicate that adequate funding, effective planning, competent project managers, good communication, the active involvement of stakeholders, good written contract, political stability, less bureaucracy in the reconstruction process, economic stability and sufficient resources are the CSFs. The findings further revealed that, there are no differences in the responses between the groups especially between managers and consultants and between contractors and consultants. The findings strongly suggest that CSFs are key resources and skills that determine the successful implementation of a project in terms of its direction and benefits and proposes that stakeholders and project managers should consider these factors for best practices when managing PDRPs. Since PDR is context specific, countries with the same economic status, environment and post-disaster event may benefit from the results. Hence, the study offers new insights to gain an understanding of the CSFs that contribute to best PDR practices.

TESTING A COMBINED MULTISPECTRAL-MULTITEMPORAL APPROACH FOR GETTING CLOUDLESS IMAGERY FOR SENTINEL-2

Abstract. Earth observation and land cover monitoring are among major applications for satellite data. However, the use of primary satellite information is often limited by clouds, cloud shadows, and haze, which generally contaminate optical imagery. For purposes of hazard assessment, for instance, such as flooding, drought, or seismic events, the availability of uncontaminated optical data is required. Different approaches exist for masking and replacing cloud/haze related contamination. However, most common algorithms take advantage by employing thermal data. Hence, we tested an algorithm suitable for optical imagery only. The approach combines a multispectral-multitemporal strategy to retrieve daytime cloudless and shadow-free imagery. While the approach has been explored for Landsat information, namely Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI, here we aim at testing the suitability of the method for Sentinel-2 Multi-Spectral Instrument. A multitemporal stack, for the same image scene, is employed to retrieve a composite uncontaminated image over a temporal period of few months. Besides, in order to emphasize the effectiveness of optical imagery for monitoring post-disaster events, two temporal stages have been processed, before and after a critical seismic event occurred in Lombok Island, Indonesia, in summer 2018. The approach relies on a clouds and cloud shadows masking algorithm, based on spectral features, and a data reconstruction phase based on automatic selection of the most suitable pixels from a multitemporal stack. Results have been tested with uncontaminated image samples for the same scene. High accuracy is achieved.

Performance evaluation of hybrid disaster recovery framework with D2D communications

Public Safety Networks (PSNs) provide assistance before- and post-disaster events. With the help of technological advances, PSNs are able to cope with both natural and man-made disasters, protecting people, environment and property. Effective communications, better situational awareness, lower response times and greater emergency efficiency are essential to an effective response to emergencies and disasters. Long Term Evolution (LTE) has been chosen to be the key technology for public safety networks. In this study, a performance model is presented for the PSN frameworks which use cooperative devices with LTE device to device (D2D) communications features. Mobile stations that are out of cellular network coverage range use D2D communications, where mobile stations which are in a healthy area can act as relay nodes to provide information about the location of potential victims to a central system. Since relay nodes have the potential to become bottlenecks for relatively high scale disasters, the interaction between the relay node and the base station is critically considered in this study. The analytical model and solution are suitable for assessing the quality of service for PSNs with similar infrastructures. Results obtained from the analytical model are presented comparatively with those from discrete event simulations for validation. The maximum discrepancy between the results obtained from the analytical model and the simulation results is less than 1.4%, which is within the confidence interval of the simulation.

Preliminary study of wireless balloon network using adaptive position tracking technology for post disaster event

Limited resources in post-disaster areas, one of which is a communication where coordination needed for aid distribution in disaster areas. Wireless balloon technology as a solution for use in post-disaster areas. Bandwidth limitations and high delay in communication systems on wireless balloons create limitations in aid coordination, especially mobile device tracking on BPBD volunteers or officers. This research develops an effective communication system at the wireless balloon to track personal device officers in disaster areas that use cellular devices. This mobile device tracking system utilizes a wireless balloon using a publish-subscribe system on their mobile devices, namely volunteers as publishers and those responsible for disasters or communities as subscribers. To overcome the limitations of communication resources on cellular devices and wireless balloons using the Adaptive method on publish-subscribe called UM-Disaster. The results of this study, the UM-Disaster system for multi-cell tracking has an average efficiency of 40-63% for bandwidth and processor use on mobile devices at 51-70%.

Blockchain and Building Information Modeling (BIM): Review and Applications in Post-Disaster Recovery

Blockchain Technology (BCT) is a growing digital technology that in recent years has gained widespread traction in various industries in the public and private sectors. BCT is a decentralized ledger that records every transaction made in the network, known as a ‘block’, the body of which is comprised of encrypted data of the entire transaction history. BCT was introduced as the working mechanism that forms the operational basis of Bitcoin, the first digital cryptocurrency to gain mainstream appeal. The introduction of decentralized data exchange technology in any industry would require strengthened security, enforce accountability, and could potentially accelerate a shift in workflow dynamics from current centralized architectures to a decentralized, cooperative chain of command and affect a cultural and societal change by encouraging trust and transparency. BCT aims at creating a system that would offer a robust self-regulating, self-monitoring, and cyber-resilient data transaction operation, assuring the facilitation and protection of a truly efficient data exchange system. In the state of Florida, climate change and unpredicted weather disasters have put pressure on state and local decision-makers to adapt quick and efficient post-disaster recovery systems. Part of the recovery efforts is the reconstruction of buildings and infrastructure. The introduction of new technologies in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry can contribute to addressing recovery and rebuilding after the event of a natural disaster. With parallel technological advancement in geospatial data and Geographic Information System (GIS), as well as worsening climatic conditions, concerns can be suitably addressed by employing an integrated system of both Building Information Modeling (BIM) and BCT. While several potential applications of BIM must provide solutions to disaster-related issues, few have seen practical applications in recent years that indicate the potential benefits of such implementations. The feasibility of BIM-based applications still rests on the reliability of connectivity and cyber-security, indicating a strong use case for using BCT in conjunction with BIM for post-disaster recovery. This research depicts a survey of BCT and its applications in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industries and examines the potential incorporation within the BIM process to address post-disaster rebuilding problems. Moreover, the study investigates the potential application of BCT in improving the framework for automating the building permitting process using Smart Contract (SC) technologies and Hyperledger Fabric (HLF), as well as discussing future research areas. The study proposes a new conceptualized framework resulting from the integration of BCT and BIM processes to improve the efficiency of building permit processes in post-disaster events.

Taking the Square: Mediated Dissent and Occupation of Public Space ed. by Maria Rovisco and Jonathan Corpus Ong

Reviewed by: Taking the Square: Mediated Dissent and Occupation of Public Space ed. by Maria Rovisco and Jonathan Corpus Ong Ma. Diosa Labiste MARIA ROVISCO AND JONATHAN CORPUS ONG, EDS. Taking the Square: Mediated Dissent and Occupation of Public Space London and New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016. 244 pages. Taking the Square: Mediated Dissent and Occupation of Public Space joins the conversation on how to think about the public sphere beyond the classical ideal that Jürgen Habermas has sketched out. It connects with the theorizing stream of Oskar Negt and Alexander Kluge (Public Sphere of Experience: Analysis of the Bourgeois and Proletarian Public Sphere; Verso, 1993), who deem the public sphere as the "social horizon of experience," thus expanding the definition of this phrase beyond institutions and practices like the press, public opinion, and public places. Places, presence, and publicity, which are presupposed in a public sphere, are useful elements to think about when reading the ten essays in this book. Mediated dissent refers to protests and other forms of oppositional communicative practices that are presented through media technologies (2–5). At the same time a mediated public sphere can be found on the internet. The internet is such an imposing public space that one of the contributing authors, Paulo Gerbaudo, calls it "digital-popular," a take on the Gramscian phrase "national-popular," which refers to the commonly held beliefs of subaltern groups (39). Many of the case studies in the book show how online discursive spaces are bound up with physical spaces of [End Page 265] protests. These physical locations constitute another type of public sphere, the public square. The fusion of mediated dissent and protests in physical places has worked for social movements in communities in Leyte and Samar hit by Typhoon Yolanda (international code name Haiyan) and Hong Kong's "Umbrella Revolution" and has functioned as a metaphorical stage for performance-as-protest in Tahrir Square in Cairo and the Mardi Gras in New Orleans. Two chapters look at mediated dissent in the Philippines: "Protest as Interruption of the Disaster Imaginary: Overcoming Voice-Denying Rationalities in Post-Haiyan Philippines" by Nicole Curato, Jonathan Corpus Ong, and Liezel Longboan (77–96) and "Minority Groups and Strategies of Display and Dissent in Physical, Virtual and Hybrid Spaces" by Cheryll Ruth Soriano and Ruepert Jiel Cao (207–25). It is worth focusing on these two case studies as examples of how social movements negotiate online and offline limitations to put forward practical and symbolic claims and enact agency. The case study on how the people in Samar and Leyte found their collective voices in the aftermath of the 2013 tropical storm Haiyan follows the activities of People Surge, a group that demands transparent relief and rehabilitation procedures from the government and participation in the rebuilding process. Haiyan was one of the strongest storms to hit the planet, and the Philippines was ill-prepared for the destruction it caused over vast swaths of coastal communities, municipalities, and cities. The study seeks to find out how "voice-denying rationalities" (79) have shaped postdisaster events. Broadly defined as ways of thinking that silence political speech in disaster-affected communities, voice-denying rationalities are also the effects of discourses the government puts forward. The official postdisaster discourse tries to set rehabilitation narratives in a three-fold manner: first, priority shall be given to basic needs for survival over communication needs; second, political demands have to yield to calls for sobriety and national unity; and, third, since the protests seem divided along political lines, the authenticity of the voices of the community of sufferers have to be doubted (81). As a result of this official discourse, rather than granting sufferers the right to freely speak, they are rendered voiceless. The idea of silencing is challenged by an implied assumption in the case study that disasters are sites of justice or spaces where the delivery of needs and communication is oriented toward respect, honesty, and equity. [End Page 266] Voice-denying rationalities are reinforced by the axiom that postdisaster recovery is possible through a resilient human spirit; thus, accusations of incompetence, corruption, and neglect leveled against the government are simply signs of victims being...

Exploring the role and importance of post-disaster events in rural communities

A series of events is often held in the wake of natural disasters in rural communities, as a tool to assist in recovery. While this phenomenon is increasingly ubiquitous, there have been few studies which acknowledge this, and none to date that examine the types of events that assist disaster recovery, the roles they play and their importance in this process. This exploratory study aims to fill this gap using a case study of 87 events held after the Black Saturday fires in Victoria, Australia, in 2009. Findings suggest that there are eight main types of events held after a natural disaster – fundraising events, grieving events, community information sessions, community rebuilding events, re-openings, VIP visits, commemorations and thanksgiving events – and that these events perform different roles in disaster recovery. A portfolio of events might be usefully employed to combat disaster fatigue, through scheduling different types of events at different times.

Operações de resposta a desastres: proposta de um modelo de gestão e de um protótipo de banco de dados

O presente trabalho apresenta uma revisão das experiências de seis instituições internacionais e uma brasileira em operações de resposta a desastres naturais. Nesta revisão, procurou-se identificar as principais estratégias de atuação que possam vir a subsidiar o processo de tomada de decisão e ação nestas circunstancias. Com base nas análises realizadas, propõe-se um framework para subsidiar a organização das operações de apoio humanitário em desastres naturais no Brasil. A partir do conhecimento sintetizado neste framework, realiza-se a análise e estruturação de um banco de dados desenvolvido visando apoiar a operação de resposta a catástrofes, relacionando informações sobre aspectos como população, profissionais da saúde, transportes etc. Enfim, apresenta-se um protótipo desse banco de dados desenvolvido com o objetivo de amparar a tomada de decisões e execução de processos operacionais no pós-catástrofe, tendo como alvo principal de utilização as regiões de alta vulnerabilidade, que apresentam histórico de catástrofes.

Flood Damage Modeling on the Basis of Urban Structure Mapping Using High-Resolution Remote Sensing Data

The modeling of flood damage is an important component for risk analyses, which are the basis for risk-oriented flood management, risk mapping, and financial appraisals. An automatic urban structure type mapping approach was applied on a land use/land cover classification generated from multispectral Ikonos data and LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) data in order to provide spatially detailed information about the building stock of the case study area of Dresden, Germany. The multi-parameter damage models FLEMOps (Flood Loss Estimation Model for the private sector) and regression-tree models have been adapted to the information derived from remote sensing data and were applied on the basis of the urban structure map. To evaluate this approach, which is suitable for risk analyses, as well as for post-disaster event analyses, an estimation of the flood losses caused by the Elbe flood in 2002 was undertaken. The urban structure mapping approach delivered a map with a good accuracy of 74% and on this basis modeled flood losses for the Elbe flood in 2002 in Dresden were in the same order of magnitude as official damage data. It has been shown that single-family houses suffered significantly higher damages than other urban structure types. Consequently, information on their specific location might significantly improve damage modeling, which indicates a high potential of remote sensing methods to further improve risk assessments.

Alleviating the negative impact of the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil leaks on the physical and psychological health of ethnic minority immigrants: A Vietnamese case study.

The disproportionate impact of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico on ethnic minorities, particularly the English literacy–challenged populations (e.g., Vietnamese) is an important public health concern. An understanding of the etiology and manifestation of disaster-induced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) promotes community resiliency. In emergency situations, socioeconomically marginalized ethnic minorities who are not fluent in English are at a disadvantage. These individuals often face economic and social barriers due to their limited-English-proficient (LEP) communication with government personnel, lack of scientific knowledge about the environmental hazards, and limited access to mental health care during postdisaster events. The objective of this commentary is to examine the potential impact of the 2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Leaks on the physical and psychological health of Vietnamese ethnic minority residents living in the emergency-impact area. The article first provides a...

Analisis Bahaya dan Resiko Bencana Gunungapi Papandayan (Studi Kasus: Kecamatan Cisurupan, Kabupaten Garut)

Risk assessment is an important step to be carried out for disaster management. It provides information for decision makers and communities in pre-disaster, during disaster and post disaster event. Nevertheless, risk assessment in Indonesia, especially on active volcanoes is still limited. This paper presents the risk assessment of Mt. Papandayan (2.665 m), the most active volcano in West Java. The unit of analysis in this study follows the administrative boundaries of village so that the identification can be applied at village level using GIS. Hazard analysis refers to the official hazard map produced by PVMBG while the vulnerability analysis is carried out in 3 sub-analysis, physical vulnerability (7 indicators), social vulnerability (7 indicators), and economic vulnerability. The hazard and vulnerability were overlayed in order to produce the risk which is subsequently made into risk map. The findings indicate that the villages located near and on the direction of the crater have relatively higher risk compared to other villages. The risk map can be incorporated as one of references for spatial planning that integrates disaster mitigation.

Spacebridge to Armenia: A Look Back at Its Impact on Telemedicine in Disaster Response

On December 7, 1988, an earthquake destroyed a significant portion of the Spitak Region of Soviet Armenia. The destruction resulted in significant death toll, building and infrastructure destroyed, and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people. The entire local medical infrastructure was significantly damaged. Before the disaster, the space medical leadership of the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were collaborating on joint activities in medicine and biology. The leaders of this collaborative effort devised an approach to support a disaster recovery utilizing telecommunications assets. This effort was focused on healthcare in a postdisaster event and became known as the Spacebridge to Armenia. This spacebridge was put in place 5 months after the calamity and operated for several months in the spring-summer of 1989. The spacebridge was extended to Ufa, Russia, in response to a second disaster. The influence of the Spacebridge to Armenia in the 20 years since has been significant. This article summarizes how telemedicine has evolved from the response to the earthquake in 1988. It presents lessons learned and illustrates the many influences that have been made.

Evaluation of a Standardized Morbidity Surveillance Form for Use during Disasters Caused by Natural Hazards

Surveillance for health outcomes is critical for rapid responses and timely prevention of disaster-related illnesses and injuries after a disaster-causing event. The Disaster Surveillance Workgroup (DSWG) of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed a standardized, single-page, morbidity surveillance form, called the Natural Disaster Morbidity Surveillance Individual Form (Morbidity Surveillance Form), to describe the distribution of injuries and illnesses, detect outbreaks, and guide timely interventions during a disaster. Traditional data sources can be used during a disaster; however, supplemental active surveillance may be required because traditional systems often are disrupted, and many persons will seek care outside of typical acute care settings. Generally, these alternative settings lack health surveillance and reporting protocols. The need for standardized data collection was demonstrated during Hurricane Katrina, as the multiple surveillance instruments that were developed and deployed led to varied and uncoordinated data collection methods, analyses, and morbidity data reporting. Active, post-event surveillance of affected populations is critical for rapid responses to minimize and prevent morbidity and mortality, allocate resources, and target public health messaging. The CDC and the Georgia Department of Public Health (GDPH) conducted a study to evaluate a Morbidity Surveillance Form to determine its ability to capture clinical presentations. The form was completed for each patient evaluated in an emergency department (ED) during triage from 01 August, 2007 through 07 August, 2007. Data from the form were compared with the ED discharge diagnoses from electronic medical records, and kappa statistics were calculated to assess agreement. Nine hundred forty-nine patients were evaluated, 41% were male and 57% were Caucasian. According to the forms, the most common reasons for seeking treatment were acute illness, other (29%); pain (12%); and gastrointestinal illness (8%). The frequency of agreement between discharge diagnoses and the form ranged from 3 to 100%. Kappa values ranged from 0.23-1.0, with nine of the 12 categories having very good or good agreement. With modifications to increase sensitivity for capturing certain clinical presentations, the Morbidity Surveillance Form can be a useful tool for capturing data needed to guide public health interventions during a disaster. A validated collection instrument for a post-disaster event facilitates rapid and standardized comparison and aggregation of data across multiple jurisdictions, thus, improving the coordination, timeliness, and accuracy of public health responses. The DSWG revised the Morbidity Surveillance Form based on information from this study.

Modeling Remote Sensing Satellite Collection Opportunity Likelihood for Hurricane Disaster Response

State and local agencies involved in emergency response to natural disasters such as hurricanes have explicitly indicated they need imagery covering the disaster area within three days of the event; and more desirably within 24 hours of the event. Airborne image collections have often been used but suffer from several problems, most noticeably the collection time (days or week) required for larger areas. The use of remote sensing satellites carrying high spatial resolution sensors has often been touted as the logical response for rapidly collecting post-disaster event imagery for emergency response. Unfortunately, satellites are maintained on fixed orbits. The repeat interval for remote sensing satellites carrying high spatial resolution sensors, even with pointable sensors, is on the order of several days, depending on the latitude for the disaster event. Fortunately, more than one satellite carries high spatial resolution imagery. This combination of requirements and restrictions may result in either a relatively high (or low) likelihood of collecting imagery within the three-day window of opportunity. This research investigated the likelihood of collecting imagery over a hurricane disaster area based on the orbital cycles of three high spatial resolution imaging satellites. Using the spatial-temporal distribution of historic hurricane landfall locations as a proxy for the probability distribution of future hurricanes by latitude, the "visibility" of each landfall location to future satellite imaging opportunities was determined. The results indicate that the likelihood of collecting imagery within one day of the event varied between 17 and 39 percent by relying on one satellite image provider. However, if either of three satellite imagery sources (i.e., Ikonos-2, Quickbird-2, and Orbview-3) could be used, then the likelihood increased to 61 percent. By relying on three satellite imagery providers there is a likelihood of between 94 and 100 percent of collecting imagery within two or three days, respectively, after the event.