Post-consumer Wood Research Articles

Forest products circular economy in an export-focused jurisdiction: Can it fill the emission reduction gap?

The use of post-consumer wood in cascades offers several potential carbon-related benefits, including longer carbon retention, less landfilling, deferred tree harvesting, and increased substitution of emissions-intensive materials. However, the establishment of well-regulated wood cascading systems is limited in many jurisdictions. In this study, we utilized a wood products carbon dynamics model (MitigAna), and data from British Columbia (BC), Canada, to estimate the mitigation potential of cascading uses of wood.We designed three scenarios: a baseline scenario without cascading, a reuse scenario assuming an 85 % recycling ratio (as the upper bound), and an achievable cascading scenario of different commodity pathways with an average 30 % recycling ratio.The achievable cascading scenario resulted in a biogenic emission reduction of 1.16 MtCO2e yr-1 (2.4 %) compared to the baseline. Further mitigation benefits may be achieved by reducing harvest, potentially leading to an additional 1.1 MtCO2e yr-1 reduction. However, as a major wood exporter, the circular economy policies of BC have limited influence, as many of the end-of-life events occur outside of BC and Canada's jurisdiction. If the cascading system were to be implemented exclusively in Canada, the emission reduction would only be 0.2 MtCO2e yr-1.Increasing the recycling ratio from 30 % to 85 % only yielded a further 2.2 % biogenic emission reduction, which suggests a diminishing rate of return for the cascading uses of wood. Jurisdictions therefore may prioritize implementing a simple and cost-effective system initially.There are economic and environmental challenges associated with collection, sorting, treatment, transportation, remanufacturing and commercialization of the post-consumer wood in cascade. Continued research is necessary to address these challenges and inform the development of effective strategies in this area.

МАТЕМАТИЧНА МОДЕЛЬ ПРОГНОЗУВАННЯ ОБСЯГІВ УТВОРЕННЯ ВЖИВАНОЇ ДЕРЕВИНИ

It is substantiated that a potential source of wood raw materials is various wood waste, in particular, post-consumer wood (PCW). A detailed review and thorough analysis was made to determine the principles of PCW classification at the Ukrainian level. The classification of PCW by degree of pollution into four groups is proposed. A method of calculating the used wood has been developed, which makes it possible to calculate its quantity effectively and reliably. A mathematical model for calculating the potential and balance of PCW by origin is proposed. It was established that the weighted average annual percentage of PCW from the trade network ranges from 14-16%, construction - 20-24%, raw materials and woodworking industries - 6-10%, used (old) furniture products - 10-16%, municipal waste - 16-18%, solid waste – 16-22%, other revenues – 6-8%. On the basis of statistical data from 2015 to 2023, approximating power dependences for each total indicator were obtained, which make it possible to forecast the volume of PCW formation in the near future, in particular until 2024. The implementation of the developed mathematical model makes it possible to effectively forecast the distribution of PCW by categories that determine the degree of pollution and, accordingly, the percentage of material processing of PCW. It is estimated that the potential of PCW in Ukraine in 2023 was about 1.783 million tons. It is justified that the improvement of PCW management at all levels should be based on general technical, economic and environmental standards and focus on the following proposals: analysis of PCW management; calculation of the potential of PCW as a secondary raw material and energy source; improvement of databases on technical, economic, environmental and statistical information; implementation of new approaches to PCW management, taking into account already existing schemes. A strategy for the material use of PCW was developed, which is based on the assessment of potential volumes of PCW according to a mathematical model, systematization of PCW by categories, classification by pollution, the concept of utilization of PCW by processing into dimensionally suitable blanks and construction materials, in particular, carpentry plates of various structures with predicted characteristics, which take into account the physical and mechanical properties of this additional wood resource.

Determination of the strength indicators of normal blockboard made of post-consumer wood

Determination of the strength indicators of normal blockboard made of post-consumer wood

Wood from Field Tests as a Model for Assessing the Suitability of Post-Consumer Wood

The circular economy forces societies to take actions aimed at giving post-consumer products a “second life”. As we know, wood is perfect for this. Moreover, reusing wood helps keep carbon in circulation, thus limiting its emissions into the atmosphere. It turns out that extensive research on determining the durability of wood is very useful and valuable for one more reason. Well, they can be used to create a model to determine the usefulness of wood, which has only apparently lost its utility value during many years of exposure to external factors. The research subject was samples of wood impregnated with protection agents and modified, originating from many years of field tests. The aim of the research was to correlate the results of wood durability determined after a period of exposure in open space with the results of determining the potential usefulness of such wood. On this basis, a model for determining the value of post-consumer wood was created. As a main result of post-consumer wood analysis, the high durabilities against C. puteana with mass loss below 3% were noticed for acetylated, furfurylated, and CCA-treated wood. Moreover, high color stabilities (ΔE < 10) were observed for thermowood and furfurylated wood.

Study of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Post-Consumer Wood of Different Age

Study of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Post-Consumer Wood of Different Age

Analysis of the phase-dependent fluorescence decay time of treated wood using FD-FLIM

Abstract For sustainable handling of wood and high material utilization, post-consumer wood has to be sorted by post-consumer wood categories in Germany. The non-destructive FD-FLIM method could improve the wood recycling process by automatic classification of waste wood into post-consumer wood classes. Thus, the phase-dependent fluorescence decay time of treated wood is analysed in this study to obtain the impact of the treatment on the fluorescence decay time. It is shown that treated and untreated wood can be differentiated using the fluorescence decay time, although the state-of-the-art theoretical fluorescence decay time differs from the experimentally determined fluorescence decay time.

The chemical nature of pollutants as a basis for the classification of wood products to be utilization

The chemical composition of used wood - wood products to be disposed of - from the processing of raw materials and materials at various stages to the removal of finished products (consumer waste) from various economic facilities was analyzed. The composition and material of both natural and chemical pollutants used as wood preservatives are characterized and described. In detail research composition and material of pollutants of post-consumer wood, in particular on the basis of matters of defence of wood: antiafterglows, antiseptics, insecticides, fungicides, biogicides, fixing agent, complex preparations but other. Classification of including of post-consumer wood which includes mechanical and chemical contaminations is developed. The most dangerous matters, carcinogenic connections and toxic components which can be contained in post-consumer wood, are described, in particular, pentachlorphenol, lindan, permethrin, dichlordiphenyl-threechloretan (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polichlorinated terphenyls (PCT), polibrominated biphenyls (PBB), polyvinilcloruro (PVC), butters on the basis of factions of coal resin (benzo(a)pyren) and connections which contain benzo(a)pyren but other, superficially active hydrocarbons (SAH). To propose the classification of used wood - wood products to be disposed of according to the degree of pollution, with a division into four groups of used wood, which are harmonized with international systems of classification of similar waste. The list of the most widespread arboreal wastes is systematized – post-consumer wood after groups, kinds, subspecieses, categories and kodas. Generalized list of dangerous components of wastes – components – chemical elements (arsenic, boron, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead, titanium, fluorine, chlorine, chromium, zinc but other) and their connections. Limitation for wood chips and shavings from common wood, which are used for the production of arboreal flags, is resulted. The criteria of classification of post-consumer wood (possible concentrations of harmful components) are offered for the different types of incineration.

Study of the characteristics of combined of blockboards made of post-consumer wood

Reasonably, wood resources should be used comprehensively, in particular, this applies to wood waste and residues at all stages of production. But today, more than ever, the question of processing post-consumer wood (PCW) has arisen – an additional reserve of wood that has already lost its consumer characteristics in products. It is proposed to use it in the production of structural panel materials, in particular for the production of traditional and normative carpentry boards in factory conditions. Designs of carpentry ordinary and combined blockboards from PCW, obtained from dismantled windows, doors and house structures, are proposed. A batch of carpentry boards from PCW was made by implementing the B-plan of the second order, where the variables were the width of the rails of the inner shield, and the rails were made of wooden bars and sawn strips of particleboard (PB). From the obtained experimental plates measuring 440x440 mm, samples were obtained for testing strength indicators during static bending. A regression model of the dependence of the initial strength parameters during static bending depending on the width of the rails of the combined carpentry blockboards from PCW resources. The models are adequate. It was established that the mechanical characteristics of all carpentry blockboards from PCW resources, regardless of their design, meet the requirements of DIN 68705-2:2014-10. Based on the results of experimental studies, it was established that the highest mechanical parameters are characterized by the combined carpentry blockboards made of PCW of the following designs in terms of rail width: BPCW = 30 mm; BPB = 30 mm – strength index during static bending – 32.252 MPa. It has been established that the highest mechanical indicators are characterized by 4 mm plywood-faced carpentry blockboards with a glued shield made of PCW and a combined carpentry blockboards with a glued shield made of PCW and PB. When the width of the rails is 50 mm, the average strength during static bending of such plates is 27.88 and 25.211 MPa, respectively. It is calculated that the use of BPCW gives financial and environmental benefits, namely, that carpentry blockboards made of BPCW (312 UAH) are 17-23% cheaper than similar ones made of primary wood (378 UAH).

MODELLING OF POST–CONSUMER WOOD SORTING AND MANIPULATION: COMPUTATIONAL CONCEPTION AND CASE STUDY

Latest scientific findings and policy guidelines emphasize the importance of returning bio-based waste raw materials through cascading use, also including post-consumer wood (PCW). To accomplish the concept of cascading use it is crucial to properly sort PCW given by the quality of raw materials which is resource consuming process. For this purpose, we have (1) selected appropriate activities, (2) constructed a model with different sub models in time, fuel and energy consumption, and (3) defined the inputs, performed calculations and presented (mid) outputs. In the case study all sub models have been compared with each other, demonstrated on the example of Slovenia. The results show that the reuse of wood is justified and should be implemented to a greater extent. Sensitivity analysis has exposed that modifying the values of the input parameters or (mid) outputs may change the final results in time and fuel consumption among selected sub models.

The Use of Compost from Post-Consumer Wood Waste Containing Microbiological Inoculums on Growth and Flowering of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × grandiflorum Ramat./Kitam.)

The purpose of the conducted study was to assess the possibility of using composts made from post-consumer wood containing waste of fibre boards and microbiological inoculums in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × grandiflorum Ramat./Kitam.) ‘Jewel Time’ cultivation. Five variants of composts (marked ask, KK, AL, AL + K, EM, EM + K) were prepared, each variant was duplicate. All variants consisted of fibreboard waste (60% of its weight), mixed with mature compost made from fibreboard waste (30%), Protohumovit-biologically active organic fertilizer with the chemical composition of cattle manure (3%), starch, sugar, corn oil (together 7%). A biological inoculum “Activit Las” was added to one half of reactors. “Activit Las” (produced by Atlas Planta S.C, Bydgoszcz) is biological inoculum containing of selected bacteria, actinobacteria and fungi, that is intended to accelerate the composting of lignocellulosic materials, including wood from forest and sawmill. The second part of reactors was implemented by microbiological inoculum (EM) from Greenland Technologia EM (Trzcianki, Poland). A Bio Best (produced by Atlas Planta S.C, Bydgoszcz) formulation of chicken manure was added to some of the reactors containing EM and Activit Las. Compost without any additional microorganisms and microelements was control for experiment. Plant quality depended on the dose of compost used as well as on the type of microbial inoculations used during the composting process. The addition of composts containing the EM microbial inoculation to peat stimulated the formation of inflorescences and inflorescence buds. It also had a positive effect on the size and number of leaves. An additional effect of using compost obtained from wood waste is the reduction in the consumption of natural resources such as peat.

An algorithmic method for the identification of wood species and the classification of post-consumer wood using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy

Abstract. In this contribution the frequency domain fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FD-FLIM) technique is evaluated for post-consumer wood sorting. The fluorescence characteristics of several wood samples were determined, whereby two excitation wavelengths (405 and 488 nm) were used. The measured data were processed using algorithmic methods to identify the wood species and post-consumer wood category. With the excitation wavelength of 405 nm, 16 out of 19 samples could be correctly assigned to the corresponding post-consumer wood category by means of the fluorescence lifetimes. Thus, the experimental results revealed the high potential of the FD-FLIM technique for automated post-consumer wood sorting.

Post-consumer wood – an additional reserve of raw materials for construction materials

It is substantiated that post-consumer wood (PCW) is an alternative additional resource of raw materials under the condition of recycling and processing it into structural materials for use in the technological processes of woodworking, furniture and other wood products. The main problem of processing used wood is clarified – the lack of resource-saving and environmentally safe technologies with practical recommendations for the use of PCW in woodworking. The need to create a classification of used wood is substantiated, which will make it possible to record, identify, forecast the volume of formation and predict a potential reserve for the manufacture of new wood products. A detailed review and thorough analysis was made to determine the principles of classification of used wood. It is substantiated that the production of structural materials, in particular carpentry boards, can become a promising direction of material use of used wood, which is an urgent and understudied problem. It is substantiated that used wood can be processed into dimensionally suitable blanks, which are the basis for the manufacture of carpentry boards and carpentry boards of various designs. It has been established that the development of ways of use, classification of used wood, resource-saving and environmentally safe technology with practical recommendations for the use of PCW in woodworking will make it possible to significantly save primary raw materials. It has been found that the problem of finding a rational option for processing PCW into dimensionally suitable blanks for carpentry boards is urgent, and for its real solution, it is necessary to develop significant steps regarding the classification of PCW according to the degree of pollution, which is decisive for the production of quality products. The main strategic ways of using PCW, which formed the basis of the developed concept in the following areas: material and energy use, transformation and storage, are substantiated. A strategy for the use of PCW has been developed in compliance with the algorithm of the step-by-step material processing procedure, which is based on the systematization of PCW by categories, classification by pollution, the concept of utilization by processing into dimensionally suitable blanks and construction materials.

A systems perspective analysis of an increased use of forest bioenergy in Canada: Potential carbon impacts and policy recommendations

The Government of Canada aims at reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions by 30% by 2030 (compared to 2005) and reaching net-zero GHG emissions by 2050. Several of the climate actions under development would incentivize an increased use of forest biomass for energy. However, lessons learned from bioenergy policies worldwide have shown that increasing the use of bioenergy can impact the forest sector as a whole and that the carbon impacts of bioenergy should be assessed holistically to limit unintended negative consequences. This study aims to summarize and present existing data in a manner that enables the Canadian government and stakeholders to identify bioenergy pathways that can contribute to Canada's decarbonization targets. Firstly, we synthetize existing statistical datasets on wood removals and uses into a holistic picture of wood flows across Canada's economy. We find that, in 2017, a minimum of 77.7 Mm3 of wood were used for energy in Canada, and that reported quantities of wood used exceeded the amount of wood removals by 14–33 Mm3 annually. Thus, while 72% of wood used for energy in 2017 derived from secondary industry residues, the origin of 26% of wood for energy cannot be identified, seriously hindering any consideration on the sustainability of the current forest bioenergy use in Canada. Secondly, we assess that the amount of wood used for energy might increase by 5.5–20.4 Mm3 by 2030. In order to identify the potential impacts of this extra bioenergy demand on GHG emissions, we reviewed relevant literature based on our qualitative analysis of the system dynamics of the forest sector in response to such an increased demand. Our results show that unless targeted measures are defined to stimulate the use of residues, it is possible that direct and indirect biogenic GHG emissions from increased use of forest bioenergy will undermine Canada's decarbonization goals. We recommend several measures to avoid this, including: discouraging the dedicated harvest of logs for bioenergy, prioritizing the collection and use of logging residues which are usually burned at roadside, and favoring the recovery and use of post-consumer wood. In addition, we recommend improving the consistency among statistical datasets on Canada's forestry sector.

Influence of Compost from Post-Consumer Wood on Development, Nutrition State of Plants, Microbiological and Biochemical Parameters of Substrates in Zonal Pelargonium (Pelargonium zonale)

The purpose of this study was to assess the possibility of using compost made from post-consumer wood in zonal pelargonium (Pelargonium zonale) cv. ‘Tex Mex’ cultivation. The influence of compost on the plant’s development and nutritional state, as well as the microbiological and enzymatic activity of the substrate was examined. Two variants of compost marked with the following letters: OPA and OPB were used. Both variants consisted of post-consumer wood waste (OP) (70% of weight) mixed with powdery waste from processing MDF boards (6%), mature compost from fiberboard waste (19%), high peat (4%), water and a biological inoculum “Activit Las”. Thirty kilograms of urea in two portions per prism were added to the OPA variant while ammonium nitrate (1.5 kg per prism), magnesium sulphate (0.4 kg per prism), potassium phosphate (0.8kg per prism) and calcium phosphate (0.9 kg per prism) were added to the OPB variant. The plants were cultivated into pots 12 cm in diameter and a capacity of 659 dm3 in the substrates consisting of peat with the addition of compost at different volume ratios. It was found that the medium type had a significant influence on the growth and flowering of the zonal pelargonium. The type of compost used was the determinant for microbiological total counts and activity. The chemical composition of the substrates significantly modified the plants’ nutritional state in terms of macro- and microelements. In summary, the study demonstrated that good quality ornamental plants can be successfully grown in peat substrate containing 25% or 50% of post-consumer wood compost.

How can the waste management sector contribute to overcoming barriers to the circular economy?

AbstractThis paper contributes to an emerging literature stream advocating the multifaceted involvement of the waste management sector in supporting the up‐scaling of the circular economy (CE). It explores the role of waste collection and recycling platforms in overcoming various barriers to CE implementation, inductively analyzing the case of postconsumer wood in Italy. Data were collected from multiple sources: interviews with 33 informants, participation in project meetings, site visits, and public and private documents. The case shows how waste collection platforms can perform different activities that can help address cultural, regulatory, market, and technological barriers. First, these platforms can contribute to stimulating demand for postconsumer wood, carrying out information and communication activities, and fostering the development of a positive image of the recovered material. Second, the platforms can contribute to defining and implementing the conditions to enable the activation of recycling processes.

Determining the regime parameters for the surface cleaning of post-consumer wood by a needle milling tool

This paper addresses the identified issue of the inefficient use of post-consumer wood (PCW) in the technological wood processing due to its surface contamination. An option to resolve this issue by cleaning PCW in a mechanized manner has been proposed, specifically by using a needle milling tool and selecting the tension value and feed rate. The impact of the tension of needle milling tools before processing on the cleaning depth of the contaminated surfaces of workpieces made from the PCW has been determined. The constructed model of the contact between a needle milling tool and the contaminated PCW surface has made it possible to describe the essence of the cleaning technique involving this tool. It was found that the depth of the layer removed by the needle milling tool’s wire is reduced in proportion to an increase in the distance before cutting is completed. A nomogram has been built to determine a change in the front angle depending on the needle milling tool’s tension value. Knowing the front angle at a certain point of the needle touch on the contact arc enables determining the thickness of cleaning, which is important for practical application, specifically, at a tension of 4.5 mm the thickness of the removed material can equal 3.46 mm. An adequate regression model was derived, the analysis of the coefficients of which showed a significant impact of tension (+0.895) on the depth of cleaning over the feed speed (+0.256). The devised model makes it possible to forecast the thickness of the removed layer to ensure the required cleanliness of the PCW wooden. Practical recommendations on the operational modes of a needle milling machine have been formulated: the feed rate should equal 10‒12 m/min, the tension ‒ 0.5–5.0 mm, which could ensure, depending on the material’s type, hardness, and the kind of PCW surface contamination, the removal of the surface layer with a thickness of 0.4–4.0 mm. A rational tension of the needle milling tool of 2.5 mm has been proposed for industrial application, which ensures the cleaning depth of contaminated surfaces within the range of 1.8–2.2 mm

Avaliação das propriedades de um compósito de matriz polimérica de polipropileno reciclado reforçado com resíduo de madeira

Produtos plásticos são ideais para um modelo de consumo rápido e barato, por outro lado, o seu uso momentâneo gera demasiado descarte de resíduosepode ocasionarproblemas ambientais. Neste contexto, esse trabalho objetivouproduzir um compósito polimérico baseado em materiais pós-consumo, envolvendo polipropileno e farinha de madeira, bem como avaliar as propriedades das formulações desenvolvidas. Através da reciclagem mecânica de polipropileno (PP) pós-consumo (resíduo urbano) e da farinha de madeira (resíduo do processamento de Medium Density Fiberboard- MDF) proveniente da indústria moveleira, desenvolveu-se um compósito polimérico, com diferentes teores dos constituintes em suas formulações, através dos processos de injeção e moldagem por compressão a quente. As propriedades dos compósitos obtidos foram avaliadas através da realização de ensaios físicos e mecânicos de granulometria, espessura, resistência à tração e flexão, absorção de água e índice de fluidez e morfológico - microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Através dos resultados obtidos, foi possível destacar que a incorporação da farinha de madeira ao compósito, proporcionou ao material o aumento da resistência à flexão e o aumento da rigidez, entretanto, a resistência à tração diminuiu. O índice de absorção de água foi maior no compósito que continha maior proporção de farinha de madeira em sua formulação. Já as micrografias evidenciaram a adesão das fibras à matriz e a formação de bolhas nas imagens de seção transversal.

(Bio)Degradable Polymeric Materials for Sustainable Future-Part 3: Degradation Studies of the PHA/Wood Flour-Based Composites and Preliminary Tests of Antimicrobial Activity.

The need for a cost reduction of the materials derived from (bio)degradable polymers forces research development into the formation of biocomposites with cheaper fillers. As additives can be made using the post-consumer wood, generated during wood products processing, re-use of recycled waste materials in the production of biocomposites can be an environmentally friendly way to minimalize and/or utilize the amount of the solid waste. Also, bioactive materials, which possess small amounts of antimicrobial additives belong to a very attractive packaging industry solution. This paper presents a study into the biodegradation, under laboratory composting conditions, of the composites that consist of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)] and wood flour as a polymer matrix and natural filler, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the degradation progress of the obtained composites with different amounts of wood flour. The degradation products were characterized by multistage electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Also, preliminary tests of the antimicrobial activity of selected materials with the addition of nisin were performed. The obtained results suggest that the different amount of filler has a significant influence on the degradation profile.

ВИЗНАЧЕННЯ ТА ПОРІВНЯННЯ ВЛАСТИВОСТЕЙ ВЖИВАНОЇ ДЕРЕВИНИ ОСНОВНИХ ХВОЙНИХ ПОРІД

The physical-mechanical properties of post-consumer wood (PCW) coniferous wood, namely pine fir, larch, spruce, were investigated. Tabular data of post-consumer wood of individual coniferous species are compiled: larch, pine, spruce and fir. The following physico-mechanical indices of used coniferous wood are investigated: density, impact hardness of fibers, static hardness, static flexural strength, chipping strength along fibers, compressive strength. Nomograms based on the research results have been constructed, which made it possible to efficiently carry out a comparative analysis of indicators for all breeds – physical-mechanical parameters of primary wood and post-consumer wood of some coniferous species. It is established that the characteristics of freshly chopped and used timber of separate coniferous species, namely pine, fir, larch, spruce, differ within acceptable limits and not more than 10-15%. Post-consumer wood coniferous timber meets the standards in terms of their physico-mechanical characteristics. On the basis of the obtained experimental researches the possibility of using used wood of separate coniferous breeds of post-consumer wood coniferous, namely pine, fir, larch, spruce for the production of wood products with satisfactory physical and mechanical properties was established. The economic feasibility of using some coniferous wood is analyzed. It is substantiated that the processing of used wood is of great environmental and social importance – the benefits of material processing of this resource. In addition, the used wood stores carbon dioxide, because after burning it will be released into the air, which is important in terms of environmental ecology. It is established that post-consumer wood of individual coniferous species is a suitable resource for material use in woodworking. It has been found that the research and recommendations will be useful for the production of products and the training process in the training of technologists.

Techno-environmental feasibility of wood waste derived fuel for cement production

Turning waste-to-resources is one of the key scientific interests in recent years, especially within industrial symbiosis networks in order to reduce the waste management problem and associated environmental consequences, improve materials efficiency and conserve natural resources. Considering global concern over fossil fuel burning and CO2 emission, engineered fuels are increasingly used in cement production. The techno-environmental feasibility of using post-consumer wood derived fuel (WDF) in practical application is rarely reported. This study comprehensively evaluated the process feasibility and environmental compliances of utilizing WDF as an alternative fuel in the co-combustion process. The results revealed that physical parameters of WDF met the required fuel standards, and the air emissions by continuous emission measurements also met the specified limits and comparable to the baseline. The stack emission parameters monitored including particulates, dioxin, mercury, cadmium and thallium, and other heavy metals were about 60%, 2%, 21%, 6% and 7% of the specified limits. In addition to significantly reducing CO2 emission (16% for using 20% WDF as co-fuel), the characteristics, of the flue gas as monitored by continuous emission monitoring and periodic stack emission at the cement plant, and the produced clinker quality were also not affected by the use of WDF. These have demonstrated the suitability of WDF as co-fuel for cement production.