post-Byzantine Art Research Articles

Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Composite Icons Reconsidered: Their Past and Present-Day Role and Use

Abstract: The phenomenon of adding a new, larger panel to an older work, thus creating a work of art consisting of two pieces from different periods, is well known in Western European art and is often referred to by the German term Einsatzbild. A similar type of reuse by insertion can be observed in Byzantine and post-Byzantine art, although it has received far less scholarly attention. Panayotis L. Vocotopoulos was the first to note its occurrence in icon painting and to propose a classification, calling such panels "composite icons" (σύνθετες εικόνες). Since then, these works have been sporadically mentioned, usually in conjunction with the methods for preserving icons in good condition, although it seems that the production of icons of this type was also driven by the desire to distinguish and draw attention to the inserted element. The relationship between the two panels can be compared to that between a relic and a reliquary, which allows the sacred object to be transported, presented, and venerated more effectively. This study analyzes some examples of composite icons in more detail and draws attention to the question of their past functions and uses, but also proposes a second line of investigation by asking how they are used today. It therefore raises further questions about composite icons, different from those posed by Vocotopoulos, and suggests possible areas for investigation. It highlights the internal diversity of the phenomenon and shows how different approaches can open up new areas for further research into composite icons.

On the Issue of the Semantics of the Monumental Paintings of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643–1644

The purpose of the article is to analyse the literature and sources covering the issues of studying the ideological and artistic content of the monumental painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643–1644. The author's main focus is on revealing the semantics of the mural's subjects and interpreting the iconology of the monumental ensemble, which will allow us to determine the place of the monument in the context of the national spiritual and artistic culture of the first half of the seventeenth century. It is planned to characterise the ideological programme of the monumental painting of the Petro Mohyla era and to identify the main accents in the system of paintings. The research methodology is based on the application of a systematic approach, an analytical method, art history, historical-comparative, historical-genetic, historical-systemic, and descriptive methods for a comprehensive consideration of the given problem and formulate well-founded conclusions. The scientific novelty is characterised by the fact that for the first time, based on a critical analysis of literature and sources, the need for a reliable semantic analysis of the monumental painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643-1644 was identified. Based on a thorough study of the features of the church's painting system, the leading artistic and visual themes are identified and a variant of the interpretation of the iconology of the monumental ensemble of the time of Petro Mohyla is proposed. Conclusions. Summarising, we should note, that in the process of analysing the system of paintings of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove, its integrity and the conditionality of all elements were noted. The nature of the images made it possible to identify the key areas that carry the greatest semantic and dogmatic load. The author identifies the leading theological themes in the system of paintings – the Incarnation and the Eucharistic Sacrifice – and outlines a number of subjects that represent these themes. It is noted that the theme of the Incarnation in Byzantine art acquired special significance after the victory of icon worship. The monumental ensemble of the Church of the Saviour of 1643-1644 was presented as a reminiscence of Macedonian Renaissance art. It was noted that the programmatic archaism of the system of paintings and a specific set of subjects were related to the actual tasks of the spiritual life of the time of Petro Mohyla. Keywords: Church of the Saviour at Berestove, monumental painting, Macedonian Renaissance, post-Byzantine art, system of paintings, semantics, iconology, theological programme, ideological and artistic content, spiritual culture, archaism, Era of Petro Mohyla.

On the Style of Monumental Painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643–1644

The purpose of the article is to analyse the literature and sources covering the issues of the style of monumental painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643–1644 and to revise the terminology traditionally used for the murals of this church. The research methodology is based on the application of a systematic approach, analytical method, art historical, historical-comparative, historical-genetic, historical-systemic and descriptive methods for a comprehensive consideration of the above issues and formulation of reasonable conclusions. The scientific novelty is characterised by the fact that for the first time, on the basis of a critical analysis of literature and sources, the need for a reliable stylistic analysis of the monumental painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove of 1643-1644 was identified in order to prove the legitimacy of the term "post-Byzantine art" in relation to this monument. Conclusions. The problem of the style of monumental painting of the Church of the Saviour at Berestove has been in the field of research since the mid-twentieth century. Although the publications of several leading national scholars contain reasonable remarks on the artistic influences on the murals of the Kyivan church, a reliable stylistic analysis has not yet been conducted. Therefore, another appeal to the monumental painting of the church is fully justified. The prospect of further research is to conduct a detailed stylistic analysis of the murals of the Kyiv church in the broad context of post-Byzantine art and Ukrainian painting of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. We believe that such an approach will allow us to resolve the issue of artistic influences on the monumental painting of the church and rethink the problem of terminology in relation to this monument in particular and to Ukrainian art of the first half of the seventeenth century in general. Key words: Church of the Saviour at Berestove, monumental painting, style, post-Byzantine art, Era of Petro Mohyla.

The Mandorla Symbol in Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Iconography of the Dormition: Function and Meaning

The present study examines the use of the mandorla symbol in Byzantine and post-Byzantine iconography of the Dormition. The research aims to outline the reasons for the adoption of the mandorla in the iconographic scheme of the subject as a means of visualizing the heavenly Eden and the Glory of God’s presence. It traces the main stages in the development of the Dormition iconography and the creation of its principal models, highlighting the diversity of the patterns in the post-Byzantine art in the Balkans.

Η σελασφοροσ - the Prizren representations of the Virgin the Light-bearer (Philological appendix by Darko Todorovic)

The paper discusses the distinctive and mutually almost identical apsidal representations in three churches in Prizren and its area. They comprise the Virgin enthroned, the Child Christ in her lap, and the archangels bowing to them, their wings raised along the edge of the conch. In two of those monuments, the accompanying inscription describes the Mother of God as the Light-bearer (? ??????????). This epithet has not been recorded so far in her depictions in Byzantine and post-Byzantine art. Whatever the origin of the distinctive solution in the apses of the three Prizren churches from various periods might have been, it was widely accepted in the Prizren area, becoming part of the local tradition.

Remarks on the Anonymous Collective Sponsorships in Post-Byzantine Epirus (Greece): The Case of an Eighteenth-Century Painting Workshop

Co-operative patronage is based on the joint effort of individuals, lay or clerical, couples, families, colleagues, ecclesiastical and military authorities, or fellow citizens. Through the donor inscriptions are revealed the different categories of such co-operative patronage in Byzantine and Post-Byzantine society. In the Greek-speaking Post-Byzantine world, such types of anonymous groups of donors and benefactors most often came from a community as a whole, or certain inhabitants of a region, while collective donations by groups of monks were also widespread. The present paper examines the practice of anonymous collective sponsorships in Post-Byzantine Epirus, presenting the surviving monuments from the sixteenth to the seventeenth century and, in detail, the cases of anonymous collective sponsorships in a specific painting workshop of the eighteenth century, that of the so-called Kapesovite painters. In Post-Byzantine period the special privileges from the Ottomans and the development of trade, contributed to the Epirus’s cultural development. The tectonic transformations in the residential network of Epirus began in the late sixteenth century and increased after the seventeenth century. During the eighteenth century, the flourishing of Post-Byzantine art is a fact, indicating the gradual rise to prevalence of the parishes and the communities over the monastic establishments and individual donors. The financial and commercial privileges, especially after the treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (1774), contributed decisively to religious monuments’ construction or renovation. The financial circumstances and the social cohesion of the Orthodox Christians in Epirus favored the increase of anonymous collective sponsorship in the eighteenth century. The monuments of that period evidence a significant amount of co-operative patronage, in which “anonymity” starred among the donors. The anonymous collective sponsorships indicates the community’s cohesion and the benefactor’s desire to create a legacy for future generations.

Depictions of St. Mark of Ephesus in post-Byzantine art

The paper discusses the visual representations of St. Mark of Ephesus, under-researched in previous scholarship, which have survived in several monuments of post-Byzantine wall painting in the Balkans. These depictions are analyzed as visual testimonies of the veneration of Mark of Ephesus in the period under consideration, i.e. as important indicators of the presence, continuity and dissemination of his cult a long time before his official canonization in the 18th century. The paper also offers an overview of the different iconographic versions of the images of St. Mark of Ephesus. Finally, it examines the possible reasons for the emergence of images representing this famed anti-Unionist metropolitan in the discussed monuments. In this context, the images of Mark of Ephesus are considered through the prism of their placement in a given iconographic program; wherever possible, the role of the ktetor and artist in their creation is examined.

«Небесная литургия» в монументальной живописи Македонии XV—XVI веков

The article examines the Divine Liturgy scenes in the wall paintings of the 15th–16th centuries in Macedonia. At this time, both iconographic versions of the Divine Liturgy plot, which developed in Byzantine art, were still used. Frequently these scenes are located in the dome or altar apse. Their inclusion in the wall decoration can be explained by the continuation of the usage of the Paleologan period schemes. Artists follow a single compositional scheme: angels-deacons and angels-priests march with the Holy Gifts to the altar, next to which there are two figures of Christ the High Priest. However, there are several examples of referring to the first half of the 14th-century schemes: Assumption Cathedral of Treskavac Monastery (1480s) and St. Panteleimon Church at Nerezi (second half of the 16th century). Also, there are two churches, which were influenced by the rare Byzantine compositions such as the drum painting of the Savior Church in Thessaloniki (mid-14th century) and the altar of St. Fanourios church in Valsamonero (15th century). There are the narthex frescoes of St. Nicholas church of the Toplici monastery (1534/1535) and St. Nicholas church in Zrze (mid-16th century). In the first case, the angelic Great Entrance procession was supplemented with the images of earthly deacons as well as Sts. Basil the Great and, presumably, John Chrysostom. The depiction of the holy hierarchs together with earthly clergy express the idea of the conciliar unity of the Church and convey the state of prayer of those in the church. In the second case, the Great Entrance motif is included in the Officiating Bishops scene, which resembles the altar program of St. Demetrius church of Markov Monastery. So, liturgical plots in Macedonian post-Byzantine art had some originality.

The Medical Vestment and Surgical Instruments of Saint Cosmas and Damian on Sinai Icons From the Seventh to the Eighteenth Century.

The iconography of the doctor saints Cosmas and Damian and the artistic representations of their miracles are important sources for the history of medicine. Within the sphere of physician-saints, Cosmas and Damian have the greatest number of iconographic depictions in Byzantine and Post-Byzantine art. In most of their representations, they wear long robes as a sort of professional mantles and carry surgical instruments and boxes indicating their status as doctors. The progress of Byzantine surgery could be attested by these objects, some of them mentioned in collections of miracle stories and documented in medical sources.

Saint Sisoes above the grave of Alexander the Great. A monastic theme of post-Byzantine art and its examples from the 17th century Serbian painting

The depiction of St. Sisoes above the grave of Alexander the Great was formulated at the end of the 15th century. The image in question is a visual interpretation of a short song (?I see you, grave?), and it was often painted in the churches throughout the Balkans during the next two centuries. With references to the textual basis of this iconographic theme, as well as its meaning, the article is devoted to insufficiently studied Serbian examples of frescoes of St. Sisoes above Alexander?s tomb, preserved on the walls of several churches painted in the first half of the 17th century.

A győri „Istenszülő az Életadó forrás”-ikon: egy magyarországi posztbizánci emlék ikonográfiájához

The paper looks – mainly from the point of view of iconography – at the intricate composition of the icon of The Mother of God “The Life-giving Fountain” made around 1700 and once used in the former Serbian orthodox church of Győr. Despite the Greek title of the icon calling the Mother of God the Life-giving Fountain, it only partly fits into the tradition of this Byzantine icon type that evolved in the Palaeologan age. The relic is astonishingly innovative not only in the Hungarian stock of icons but also in the whole of post-Byzantine icon painting first of all on account of its secondary motifs. The analysis of analogies and pictorial sources of the individual compositional elements – various plant motifs, the fountain, the coronation of the Virgin, motifs alluding to the celestial sphere – has revealed that the Győr icon is an elaborate complex of western influences arriving into post-Byzantine art along diverse routes. The inscriptions also tie the icon to the Byzantine Akathist hymn to the Blessed Virgin which includes the same symbols of Mary rooted in the Bible as were widespread in the West as well in the early baroque cult of the Virgin. The Győr icon has connections with post-Byzantine iconographic types displaying the influence of western art, such as the tree of Jesse, the Unfading rose, which together with the Life-giving Fountain icon were popular in the 16–17th century icon painting in the territory between Venice, Crete and Athos. The special art historical place of the studied icon is, however, defined by its closest iconographic analogy, the Sammelikone surviving in the imperial court of Vienna, in which the central image of the Life-giving Fountain is added the votive portraits of Emperor Leopold I and his wife. The Győr icon of the Life-giving Fountain is most probably related to some orthodox ethnic group (Serbs, Greeks, Macedonians) who fled the Ottomans to the area of the Habsburg Empire.

From Byzantine to post-Byzantine art: the painting technique of St Stephen's wall paintings at Meteora, Greece

The old katholikon of St Stephen's monastery at the Meteora (site of the most important complex of monasteries in Greece after Mount Athos) is decorated with wall paintings that date from the beginning of 17th century. In terms of style, the artistic ensemble is altogether characteristic of the period. The painting technique has been examined by means of μRaman and μFTIR spectroscopies, gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC/MS), optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Prior to the commencement of restoration treatment, and in order to optimise its effect, it was considered prudent to identify the materials and ascertain the techniques that had been used to apply the plaster and the paint layers. It was noted that whereas the ariccio consists of yellow clay and straw, the intonaco contained calcite. The painter's palette is made up of eight pigments: calcite, carbon black, yellow ochre, haematite, green earth, cinnabar, smalt and malachite. The stratigraphy and the scale of the shades differ significantly from those in works of the Palaeologan period (1261–1453) – indicative both of evolution in Byzantine iconography as a result of gradually changing religious and social circumstances, and of the skill and vision of the painter. In addition, some decay products, such as gypsum, were detected. In that they conceal important artistic details, this necessitates proper consolidation, cleaning and conservation treatment in order to restore to some degree the original splendour of the wall paintings.

Studying wall paintings in Berati Castle (Albania): Comparative examination of materials and techniques in XIVth and XVIth century churches

Abstract In this paper the study is focused on the continuation of the Byzantine wall painting iconography in Albania through the study of two characteristic churches of the 14th and 16th centuries situated in the Castle of Berati. The town of Berati has a long history that goes back to the Bronze Age, and the old castle, situated on top of a hill, has always been the nucleus of the town and is still inhabited. Several churches within the castle walls are decorated with beautiful wall paintings and icons, beautiful examples of Byzantine and post Byzantine art and architecture. The techniques used to analyze the samples were optical microscopy, TXRF, micro-FTIR and SEM-EDS. Similar materials were used in the construction of the wall paintings of both churches, marking a continuation in the Byzantine technology in the construction of wall paintings. The presence of calcium carbonate reveals the use of the fresco technique. Colors were rendered by the application of calcite, azurite, green earth, cinnabar, ochres and carbon black. Plaster was composed in all cases mainly of calcite with small amounts of silicates and organic fibers while there were characteristic differences between the plaster samples of the church of the 16th century in the presence of gypsum, originating to its use by the painter as a constituent element. All painted samples suffered from deterioration, identified even visually.

The scene of the martyrdom of Saint Demetrios in post-Byzantine art

This study is devoted to iconographic types of presentations of the martyrdom of St. Demetrios in post-Byzantine art, but it also includes later examples from the 18th and the 19th centuries, when the scene was entirely simplified. It also discusses the inclusion of presentations of the death of St. Demetrios in other iconographic cycles, as well as its significance for the iconographic formulae in presentations of the death of some other saints.